Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design (2025) 8:277

https://doi.org/10.1007/s41939-025-00867-3

ORIGINAL PAPER

Optimization of fiber loading, fiber length and mathematical

modelling of Phoenix Sylvestris leaf sheath biocomposites
for structural applications
Aravind Ambika Gangadharan1 · Rajesh Resselian1 · Dev Anand Manoharan1

Received: 13 October 2024 / Accepted: 4 April 2025 / Published online: 19 April 2025
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025

Abstract
Natural fibers are increasingly valued as reinforcement materials in composite manufacturing, offering an eco-friendly alter-
native to synthetic fibers, despite their superior mechanical properties. This study investigates the thermal, mechanical,
morphological, and water affinity properties of bio-composites reinforced with Phoenix sylvestris leaf sheath biofibers in an
unsaturated polyester resin matrix, focusing on the effects of fiber content by weight percentage and length. The biocomposite
featuring 30% weight and 5 mm length Phoenix sylvestris leaf sheath biofibers exhibited the highest mechanical performance,
with strong tensile properties. Moreover, increasing the fiber length up to 15 mm further upgraded the tensile, flexural, hard-
ness, and impact features of the bio-composite. The viability of the bio-composite for industrial applications was established
through X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy evaluates. The biocomposite’s satisfactory hydrophobicity, lower
density, and heat resistance, achieved through optimal fiber loading and length, make it suitable for use in aerospace and
automotive components.

Keywords Fiber content · Fiber length · Modelling · Optimization · Bio-composite · Characterization

1 Introduction search for sustainable materials. These composites use fibers

sourced from plants such as flax, hemp, jute, and sisal as rein-
The exploration of natural yarns as reinforcement in compos- forcement within a matrix material, typically a polymer resin
ite materials has grew substantial traction in current years, (Negi et al. 2022, Thandavamoorthy et al. 2025). Moreover,
driven by their sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and desir- they possess favorable properties such as high strength-to-
able mechanical features (Tianshi et al. 2023; Prateek et al. weight ratios, which are essential for developing lightweight
2021). The search for alternative resources to substitute arti- materials (Gokulkumar et al. 2024). The integration of nat-
ficial yarns has intensified owing to environmental concerns ural fibers into composites not only contributes to reducing
and the quest for more sustainable manufacturing practices the environmental footprint of material production but also
(Thooyavan et al. 2024). Natural fibers, including those offers a range of mechanical properties that can be tailored
derived from plants, offer a compelling solution. They are for specific applications (Maniraj et al. 2024). The effec-
biodegradable, have a lower environmental impact during tiveness of these fibers as reinforcement, however, depends
production, and often exhibit favorable mechanical proper- significantly on their characteristics, including fiber loading
ties (Thandavamoorthy et al. 2024a). These fibers, derived and fiber length.
from various plant sources, offer an environmentally friendly Fiber loading refers to the proportion of fibers within a
alternative to synthetic fibers, combining sustainability with composite material. It demonstrates a vital part in defining
effective reinforcement properties. Natural fiber-reinforced the composite’s mechanical properties, including strength,
composites have emerged as a compelling choice in the stiffness, and sturdiness (Houssine et al. 2023; Praveena et al.
2022). For biofiber-reinforced composites, varying the fiber
B Aravind Ambika Gangadharan loading can lead to significant changes in performance. High
[email protected]
fiber loading generally enhances the strength and stiffness
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Noorul Islam Centre of the composite but may also impact its workability and
for Higher Education, Kumaracoil, Tamil Nadu 629180, India processability (Binoj et al. 2024; Thandavamoorthy et al.

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2024a, b). Conversely, lower fiber loading might lead to reinforcement and filler material to achieve least weight and
reduced mechanical performance but can improve the ease of maximum tensile strength by multi-objective optimization
manufacturing. Therefore, understanding how fiber loading method. Their pareto diagram revealed that the composite
affects the composite’s properties is essential for optimizing sample with 15 wt.% kenaf fiber and 0.862 wt.% nano-
material performance for specific lightweight applications graphenes possessed minimum weight and maximum tensile
(Brifin et al. 2024). Fiber length is another critical parameter strength of 30.9481 MPa. In their 2024 study, Marilena et al.,
in composite materials. Longer fibers typically provide bet- (2024) explored the use of a hybrid reinforcement made
ter reinforcement, enhancing the tensile strength and impact from hazelnut shells and powdered wood in polylactide com-
resistance of the composite (Dharani et al. 2023). However, posites designed for wrapping utilities. They incorporated
they can also affect the processing of the composite, poten- 10:20:70 wt.% of powdered wood, hazelnut shell and poly-
tially leading to issues such as poor dispersion or difficulty in lactide respectively to create their composites. Surprisingly,
achieving a uniform matrix. On the other hand, shorter fibers these composites exhibited reduced tensile strength related
might be easier to process and distribute within the matrix to pure polylactide. This unexpected result was attributed to
but may offer less reinforcement compared to longer fibers the brittleness of the polylactide substrate and its poor com-
(Felix et al. 2024). The Phoenix sylvestris leaf sheath fibers patibility with the filler materials.
come in various lengths, and their optimal use depends on In contrast, Mahmut et al. (2024), demonstrated that com-
achieving a balance between mechanical performance and posites reinforced with silane-modified basalt fibers in poly-
processing requirements. lactic acid presented notable enhancements in mechanical
The mechanical behavior of biofiber-reinforced compos- properties. Additionally, the impregnation of compatibilizer
ites is influenced by both fiber loading and fiber length supplementarily enhanced the hydrophobic features of these
(Qiong et al. 2023). The composite’s tensile strength, flex- composites. Divya et al. (2022), detailed the biocomposites
ural strength, and impact resistance are directly affected by reinforced with fibers segregated from the peduncle of Fur-
these parameters. Higher fiber loading generally improves craea selloa K. Koch. They intended to optimize the weight
these properties but might also introduce challenges related percentage and fiber length of reinforced fiber to achieve
to fiber-matrix adhesion and potential issues with process- excellent mechanical characteristics. Their experimentations
ing (Lendvai et al. 2023; Beschi et al. 2024). Similarly, the documented a peak tensile strength of 103.51 MPa for
length of the fibers can impact the distribution of stresses 30 wt.% fiber proportion and fiber length of 30 mm. The
within the composite and its overall durability. One promis- same composite specimen exhibited a flexural strength of
ing candidate in this field is the Phoenix sylvestris, commonly 144.65 MPa and thermal stability of 390 °C with sufficient
known as the Date Palm. The leaf sheath of this plant has water captivation features. Sathiyamurthy et al. (2023), envi-
emerged as a viable source of biofiber for composite mate- sioned to optimize the percentage weight of reinforcement
rials due to its availability and intrinsic mechanical strength. and filler material in Egg shell powder/Banana fiber/Epoxy
Phoenix sylvestris leaf sheath fibers are derived from the composite using Design expert algorithms for maximum
outer part of the palm’s fronds. These fibers are known mechanical characteristics. Their output reads that the com-
for their durability, flexibility, and relatively high tensile posite with 2 cm fiber and 11.74 wt.% egg shell powder
strength, making them suitable for reinforcement in com- exhibited 14.25 MPa, 37.71 kJ m−2 and 36.069 MPa of ten-
posite materials. The leaf sheath is often discarded as waste sile, impact strength and flexural strength respectively.
in palm cultivation, presenting an opportunity to repurpose The tree parts were traditionally used in various appli-
this by-product into valuable composite materials (Tamilsel- cations, including handicrafts and construction (Umar et al.
van et al. 2024). The inherent properties of these fibers can 2023). Still the leaf sheath of Phoenix sylvestris tree remains
significantly influence the performance of the composites as an agro waste without any noteworthy utilization. The
in which they are embedded. Phoenix Sylvestris leaf sheath fibers from the Phoenix sylvestris leaf sheath are now being
fibers offer superior sustainability, biodegradability, and cost- investigated for their potential in advanced composite materi-
effectiveness compared to synthetic fibers and some natural als. This research article delves into the optimization of fiber
alternatives. With excellent mechanical properties, includ- loading and fiber length of Phoenix sylvestris leaf sheath
ing tensile strength and impact resistance, they outperform biofibers (PSLSB) and their impact on the mechanical and
other natural fibers like jute or hemp in specific applications, failure behaviours of polymer composites for lightweight
making them ideal for environmentally friendly composite applications. The PSLSB of varying configurations were
materials (Ramesh et al. 2024). loaded into Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UPR) to make
Taghipoor et al. (2023), interrogated the tensile charac- biocomposites with fiber length varying as 5, 10, 15 and
teristics of basalt and kenaf fiber reinforced polymer com- 20 mm and fiber weight percentage varying as 10, 20, 30
posite with nano-graphenes as filler material using surface and 40 wt.%. The fabricated composites were interrogated
methodology method. They varied the weight percentage of for its morphology, moisture affinity, thermal and mechanical

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characteristics. Additionally, the project seeks to find indus- fully wetted. A serrated roller was cast off to expel entombed
trial applications for crop residue that is usually disposed air and ensure the mould was firmly sealed. The mould was
of as garbage on fields or incinerated in nature, affecting then exposed to fluid force of 5 MPa for 24 h to harden
the local air quality. The appropriateness of biocomposites the PSLSB composite (PSLSBC) plate at room temperature
enhanced with the optimal configuration of PSLSBs for use (Khalid et al. 2023). The same procedure was used for creat-
as frames for support in internal automobile utilities which ing composite specimens with other PSLSB lengths and fiber
were assessed by its morphology, moisture affinity, thermal contents. The resulting composite specimens are detailed in
and mechanical features. Table 1 along with their labels.

2 Materials and methods 2.4 Mechanical characterization

2.1 Materials The biocomposite specimens were smoothed using less

coarse sandpaper and formed with a trimmer following
Leaf sheaths from Phoenix Sylvestris were collected from ASTM standards. The tensile properties of the biocompos-
waste at corporate and educational sites around Chennai, ites, which had different percentage by weight s of PSLSB
Tamil Nadu, India. Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP), loadings and fiber lengths, were evaluated using a TINIUS
cobalt naphthenate, and UPR required for making compos- OLSEN UTM apparatus (H50KL), according to ASTM
ite specimens were sourced from M/s. Raja Traders Pvt. Ltd, D3039 guidelines (ASTM Standard D3039 2002). The flex-
Tirunelveli, India. The composite plates were produced using ural characteristics of these specimens were tested with the
a compression molding machine. same equipment, but with bending force attachments, as
specified by ASTM D790 standards (ASTM Standard D790.
2.2 Fiber extraction 2002). The impact resistance of the samples was measured in
line with ASTM D256-10 impact testing procedures (ASTM
The different types of fiber extraction process include manual Standard D256-10 2002). Additionally, the hardness of the
extraction, mechanical extraction, retting, chemical extrac- biocomposite plates was assessed following ASTM D785-98
tion, drying and beating and enzymatic extraction process. specifications (ASTM Standard D785-98 2002).
The combined retting and manual extraction process was fol-
lowed in the work. The gathered leaf sheaths, depicted in 2.5 Fractographic analysis
Fig. 1, were submerged in water for three days. After soak-
ing, the leaf sheaths were rinsed 5 or 6 times in running The splintered surfaces of bio-composite samples exposed to
water to separate the Phoenix Sylvestris leaf sheath biofibers tensile stress were analyzed using scanning electron micro-
(PSLSB) from the pulp and remove any remaining dust par- scope (SEM) CARL ZEISS SMART EVO 18.15.66 model
ticles (Brailson et al. (2022). The extracted PSLSB were then special edition, Germany to investigate the fracture pattern.
dried in the sun to reduce moisture. The fiber yield was 17 To avoid charge buildup at a high voltage of 3 kV, a thin layer
wt.% of the total weight of the leaf sheath. The average fiber of platinum was coated on the surface of the biocomposite
diameter after processing was 229.15 ± 18.57 μm. After specimens prior to capturing the SEM images (Mohan et al.
being exposed to the sun for three days, the PSLSBs were 2022).
stored until they were needed for the composite construction
method.
2.6 Mathematical modelling
2.3 Composite fabrication
Mathematical models are created based on the properties
Composites were fabricated by means of a compression of the fiber and matrix to estimate the tensile strength of
molding method with a 300 × 150 × 3 mm3 mold, as illus- polymer composites. Two specific models, the series model
trated in Fig. 1. PSLSBs were segregated into pieces spaning and Hirsch’s model, are employed to forecast the tensile
from 5 to 20 mm, in 5 mm additions. The mold’s inside strength of composites with varied fiber length and weight
area was coated with silicone gel prior to the matrix mixture percentage (Binoj et al. 2017). For data analysis of the Series
was applied using quills. The matrix was made by mixing and Hirsch’s models the linear regression was used. The
UPR, cobalt naphthenate, and MEKP in a 98:1:1 ratio (Brail- outcomes predicted by these models are then related with
son Mansingh et al. 2023a, b). Ten weight percent of 5 mm experimental data within the experimented conditions to
PSLSBs were randomly arranged inside the mold, and the determine a quantifiable correlation between the composite
remaining matrix was poured over them to ensure they were specimen and its fundamental characteristics.

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Fig. 1 Separation of PSLSB and making of bio-composite plates. a Collected Phoenix Sylvestris leaf sheath. b Soaking of Phoenix Sylvestris leaf
sheath. c Extracted PSLSB. d Compression moulded PSLSBC and e Fabricated PSLSBC

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Table 1 Formed PSLSBC specimens with abbreviations the analysis was accomplished in a nitrogen ambience with
a stream rate of 20 mL/min.
Specimen code Composite content

Neat UPR 100 wt.% UPR

10PSLSBC5 10 wt.% and 5 mm PSLSB in UPR
3 Results and discussions
20PSLSBC5 20 wt.% and 5 mm PSLSB in UPR
3.1 Tensile characteristics
30PSLSBC5 30 wt.% and 5 mm PSLSB in UPR
40PSLSBC5 40 wt.% and 5 mm PSLSB in UPR
The tensile strength of PSLSBC is illustrated in Fig. 2a, b.
30PSLSBC10 30 wt.% and 10 mm PSLSB in UPR The inclusion of PSLSB significantly improved the tensile
30PSLSBC15 30 wt.% and 15 mm PSLSB in UPR strength of the biocomposites, with enhancements observed
30PSLSBC20 30 wt.% and 20 mm PSLSB in UPR as the PSLSB content improved (Nagarajan et al. 2019).
The biocomposite specimen containing 30 weight percent
PSLSB exhibited the highest tensile properties, showing a
2.7 Water absorption analysis tensile strength and modulus of 63.60 MPa and 1.26 GPa,
correspondingly. These values represent improvements of
Evaluating the moisture captivation of the fabricated biocom- 71.33% and 36.95% over the unmodified UPR, owing to the
posite specimens provides insight into their suitability for use increased load-bearing capacity and better interaction prop-
in humid conditions (Saravanan et al. 2022). After immers- erties provided by PSLSB. However, the tensile strength of
ing the bio-composite samples, each with a known mass, in the 40PSLSBC5 biocomposite specimen, which includes 40
water for a specified period, their masses were recorded again percent weight PSLSB, were found to decline. This reduction
to assess any increase. The moisture retention rate of the bio- is attributed to the higher PSLSB to PSLSB interactions of
composite specimens was calculated by means of Eq. (1) the PSLSB and scarce matrix coverage adjacent to the fibers
(Ibrahim et al. 2022). leading to poor fiber-matrix interaction (Thandavamoorthy
et al. 2024a).
Final weight − Original weight It’s also important to note that the length of the PSLSB
Water absorption (%) = × 100 (1)
Original weight reinforcement affects the mechanical properties of PSLSBC.
As the length of the PSLSB reinforcement increases, so do
the tensile properties of the PSLSBC. 30PSLSBC15 demon-
2.8 XRD analysis strates improved tensile strength related to 30PSLSBC5
owing to improved alignment of the 15 mm PSLSB compared
The crystallographic properties of the formed biocomposite to the 5 mm version when integrated into UPR as reported
specimens were investigated using X-ray diffraction (XRD) by Ng et al. (2018). Specifically, the tensile strength and
Panalytical PW3040/60 X’pert PRO, Netherlands. For this modulus of the 30PSLSBC15 biocomposite are 7.1% and
analysis, a P-Analytical Xpert diffractometer was employed. 6.34% higher, respectively, than those of 30PSLSBC5. This
This instrument operates over a Bragg angle (2θ ) extent of improvement results in enhanced load transfer between the
10°–80°, by means of a coherent CuKα radiation directed PSLSB and UPR in 30PSLSBC15. However, further increas-
at the powdered bio-composite samples while rotating at a ing the PSLSB length to 20 mm in 30PSLSBC20 leads to a
constant speed of 5°/min (Brailson et al. 2024). The supply reduction in tensile properties due to higher fiber concentra-
settings were adjusted to 30 mA and 40 kV, with the measure- tion and less effective load transfer between the PSLSB and
ments conducted at an ambient temperature of 25 °C using a UPR.
copper anode.
3.2 Flexural characteristics
2.9 TGA analysis
The flexural endurance of PSLSBC is illustrated in Fig. 3a,
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was conducted on the b. The addition of PSLSB to UPR upgraded the flexu-
powdered biocomposite specimens by means of a Pyris 6 ral endurance of the biocomposite plates similar to ten-
TGA 4000 instrument. Nearly 10–12 mg of the specimen sile characteristics, with these enhancements increasing
was positioned in an alumina vessel within the incineration as the weight percentage of PSLSB. The bio-composite
compartment. The temperature was gradually increased from sample 30PSLSBC5 surpassed all previous PSLSBC sam-
environmental temperature to 550 °C at a rate of 10 °C/min, ples, demonstrating a bending endurance and rigidity of
while the mass loss was recorded using the PYRIS monitor- 56.80 MPa and 1.08 GPa, accordingly. Compared to pure
ing software (Prabhu et al. 2022). To circumvent oxidation, UPR, the flexural endurance and modulus of 30PSLSBC5

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Fig. 2 Tensile features of

PSLSBC a Tensile strength and
b Tensile modulus

Fig. 3 Flexural features of

PSLSBC a Flexural strength and
b Flexural modulus

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were 61.22% and 68.75% higher. This improvement is improved hardness by 5.9%. The 15 mm PSLSB, with its
attributed to the improved wettability and binding among optimal aspect ratio, aligns and distributes effectively within
UPR and PSLSB in 30PSLSBC5, which resulted in optimal the UPR, ensuing in a denser biocomposite with fewer voids
flexural properties as reported by Bharath et al. (2024). On and thereby better hardness as observed by Yang et al. (2023).
the contrary, 40PSLSBC5 presented a deterioration in flexu- However, as with other mechanical properties, increasing the
ral properties due to inadequate UPR absorption by PSLSB PSLSB length and percentage weight above 15 mm and 30
during the bio-composite manufacturing process. Sample wt.% respectively, leads to a decline in hardness. This dete-
30PSLSBC15, with its favorable reinforcement aspect ratio, rioration is owing to the formation of additional cavities and
exhibited enhanced flexural properties due to improved the accumulation of PSLSB within the composite (Thandava-
interface bonding with UPR compared to 30PSLSBC5 as moorthy and Yuvarajan 2024a, b).
reported by Thandavamoorthy et al. (2024b). However, fur-
ther increasing the PSLSB length in 30PSLSBC20 led to 3.5 Fractographical analysis
reduced flexural properties due to poor distribution, align-
ment, and load transfer between the PSLSB and UPR. Figure 6 presents SEM imageries of the tensile rupture sur-
faces for the biocomposite test samples 30PSLSBC5 and
3.3 Impact characteristics 30PSLSBC15, which exhibited superior mechanical proper-
ties related to other samples. Fracture patterns in natural fiber
Figure 4 illustrates the impact properties of PSLSBC. Among reinforced polymer composites vary with fiber length and
the various PSLSBC samples tested, 30PSLSBC5 demon- content. Shorter fibers tend to lead to more brittle fractures
strated superior impact performance compared to plain UPR with higher crack propagation due to weaker fiber-matrix
and other PSLSBCs with different PSLSB weight percent- bonding. In contrast, longer fibers improve stress distribution
ages, as evidenced by its tensile and bending qualities. and result in tougher, more ductile fractures, often exhibiting
This superior performance is attributed to 30PSLSBC5’s fiber pull-out and less crack propagation. Higher fiber con-
effective absorption of impact stress by the PSLSB. How- tent typically enhances mechanical properties, but excessive
ever, 30PSLSBC15 exhibited even better impact properties amounts can cause poor fiber dispersion, leading to defects
than 30PSLSBC5 (Justin Abraham et al. 2024). The align- and more localized failure zones. In Fig. 6a, the 30PSLSBC5
ment, unique aspect ratio and distribution of the 15 mm sample shows numerous cavities with broken fibers on its
PSLSB in 30PSLSBC15 contributed to an upgraded impact fractured surface, indicating that PSLSB has pulled away
endurance of 5.95 J/cm2 , which is 11.6% higher related to from the matrix (Salman. 2020). This suggests a weak bond
30PSLSBC5 as witnessed by Senthilrajan et al. (2022). Ris- between the PSLSB and the matrix in 30PSLSBC5 due to
ing the PSLSB weight percent above 30 wt.% or using PSLSB the low aspect ratio and hydrophilic nature of the PSLSB,
longer than 15 mm led to a decrease in impact performance. which hampers effective stress transfer from UPR to PSLSB
Higher PSLSB content obstructs the UPR flow around the (Kamath et al. 2022). Conversely, Fig. 6b reveals SEM
PSLSB, resulting in poor interaction and increased forma- images of the fracture surface for 30PSLSBC15, which dis-
tion of voids, which can lead to crack propagation under plays a honeycomb structure with fewer cavities and more
impact loads, thus reducing impact characteristics (Salman PSLSB breaks. This improved result is attributed to the
et al. 2015). Additionally, using PSLSB longer than the opti- improved aspect ratio of the PSLSB in 30PSLSBC15, leading
mal length results in suboptimal alignment and distribution to enhanced adhesion between PSLSB and UPR and better
within the PSLSBC, further compromising impact proper- stress transfer under load (Brailson et al. 2023a).
ties.
3.6 Mathematical modelling of PSLSBC
3.4 Hardness analysis
Renowned scientists have developed theoretical models to
Figure 5 displays the hardness of PSLSBCs. Consistent estimate the tensile strength of fiber-reinforced polymer
with other mechanical properties, 30PSLSBC5 achieved the composites with randomly oriented short fibers. The pre-
highest hardness among various PSLSBCs and pure UPR, dictive accuracy of Series and Hirsch’s models for tensile
registering a hardness of 68 HRRW. This value is 28.8% strength in natural fiber reinforced polymer composites
higher than that of pure UPR. The increased hardness of varies. According to the Series model, the components
30PSLSBC5 suggests improved resistance to fracture prop- behave in a sequential manner, with the composite’s tensile
agation, which is attributed to the even distribution and strength being limited by the weakest component. In accor-
effective wetting of PSLSB by UPR (Martin Thangaraj et al. dance to the Hirsch model, the fiber and matrix share load
2024). Further enhancement of hardness was observed with in parallel, and the total tensile strength is determined by the
the addition of 15 mm PSLSB in 30PSLSBC15, which weighted individual characteristics of the fiber and matrix,

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Fig. 4 Impact strength of

PSLSBC

Fig. 5 Hardness characteristics

of PSLSBC

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Fig. 6 Fracture images of a 30PSLSBC5 and b 30PSLSBC15

which are based on their respective volume fractions. Series When the fiber content exceeds the optimal level of 30
model tends to underestimate strength by not fully consider- wt.%, the bonding characteristics deteriorate, resulting in
ing fiber-matrix interactions, while Hirsch’s model provides fiber debonding within the matrix and a consequent decrease
a more realistic prediction by accounting for both matrix and in strength as discusses in Sect. 3.1. These actual variations
fiber contributions, offering better accuracy. Below are the in the materials are not captured by the models, limiting their
Series (2) and Hirsch’s (3) models along with their formulas applicability to materials with ideal bonding conditions.
for predicting tensile properties prior to actual fabrication,
based on the characteristics of the fiber and matrix (Binoj 3.7 Water Absorption Study
et al. 2017).

σm σ f The bio-composite samples 30PSLSBC5 and 30PSLSBC15

σc = (2) were immersed in both distilled and underground water for
σm V f + σ f V m
ninety minutes. Their weights were recorded periodically
σm σ f every ten minutes. After each interval, the samples were
σc = [x(σm V m + σ f V f )] + [(1 − x) × ]
σm V f + σ f V m removed, and excess water was wiped off with a damp cloth
(3) before weighing (Safinaz et al. 2022). A rise in the weight
of the biocomposites indicated water absorption and their
where σ c – composite’s tensile strength, N/m2 , σ m —matrix tendency to absorb moisture. For the first 40 min, the rate
tensile strength, N/m2 , σ f —Tensile strength of fiber, N/m2 , of water absorption in the bio-composite samples increased
Vf —Fiber volume fraction, Vm —Matrix Volume fraction, steadily, then began to decline and reached a stable level after
x—Constant value varying between 0 and 1. 60 min. The presence of free hydroxy groups (OH groups)
The foreseen tensile strength of PSLSBC Fig. 7 relative to in the PSLSB-enriched bio-composites allows for hydrogen
the fiber volume fraction is related with experimented data to bonding with water molecules, highlighting their absorbent
verify the model’s accuracy. The model’s predictions align nature (Chakkour et al. 2023). As water molecules diffuse
well with the experimental findings within the optimal fiber into the bio-composites and interact with the PSLSB rein-
volume range (Werchefani et al. 2020). In Hirsch’s model, the forcement, hydrogen bonding occurs.
parameter ‘x’ represents the stress transfer among the fiber The 30PSLSBC15 demonstrated a 13.7% and 16.4%
and matrix, and a number of 0.2 appears to be suitable for decrease in hydrophilicity in distilled and underground
PSLSBCs. Below are the regression equations for the empir- water, respectively, when compared to 30PSLSBC5. This
ical (4), Series (5) and Hirsch’s (6) models of PSLSBCs. decrease is due to the fewer reinforcement ends in the
15 mm PSLSB-reinforced 30PSLSB15, unlike the more
PSLSBC − σc = 175.58V f + 34.891 (4) extensive reinforcement in 30PSLSBC5. The higher num-
ber of reinforcements ends in 30PSLSBC5 leads to more
void formation, as evidenced by its density of 1.118 g/cm3
PSLSBC − σc = 68.61V f + 43.727 (5)
compared to the 1.147 g/cm3 of 30PSLSBC15. These voids
in 30PSLSBC5 allow for greater water absorption, making
PSLSBC − σc = 182.21V f + 44.523 (6) it more hydrophilic related to 30PSLSBC15 (Cornelius et al.

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Fig. 7 Predicted and

experimental values of tensile
strength of PSLSBCs

Table 2 Water captivation phenomenon of 30PSLSBC5 and 30PSLSBC15

Composite Density Diffusion coefficient, D (m2 /s) Corrected diffusion coefficient, Water absorption, W (%)
specimen (g/cm3 ) D’ (m2 /s)

Distilled Underground Distilled Underground Distilled Underground

water water water water water water

30PSLSBC5 1.118 4.3 × 10–12 5.6 × 10–10 3.7 × 10–12 4.7 × 10–10 8.7 7.3
30PSLSBC15 1.147 4.7 × 10–11 5.5 × 10–11 3.9 × 10–11 4.3 × 10–11 7.5 6.1

2010). Additionally, variations in density and pH between where, n is the Width of the composite (m), Mm is the
distilled and underground water affect the lower affinity of Maximum moisture content (%), l is the Length of the com-
both 30PSLSBC5 and 30PSLSBC15 for underground water posite (m), t is the time (s), √
k is the Initial slope of the
compared to distilled water. The diffusion coefficient (D) and plot drawn between M(t) and t, h is the Thickness of the
the adjusted diffusion coefficient (D’) for each sample, as pre- composite (m). The observed water absorption values of the
sented in Table 2, were estimated by means of Fick’s relation 30PSLSBC15 sample ensures its use in marine applications
(Eqs. 7 and 8) (Sijie et al. 2021) to evaluate the effects of where the environment is moister.
water absorption on 30PSLSBC5 and 30PSLSBC15.
3.8 XRD analysis
 2
kh Figure 7 illustrates the XRD patterns for 30PSLSBC5
Diffusion coefficient, D = π (7)
4Mm and 30PSLSBC15. The partial crystallinity of these bio-
composite samples is shown by the peaks appearing at Bragg
angles (2θ ) of 16.3° and 22.6° (Meisam et al. 2023). The first
 
h h −2 peak at 16.3° (2θ ) corresponds to the amorphous substances
Corrected diffusion coefficient, D  = D 1 + +
l n in 30PSLSB5 and 30PSLSB15, such as hemicellulose, lignin,
(8) and wax. The second peak at 22.6° (2θ ) is associated with

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the crystalline components, like cellulose, present in the rein- respectively, within the temperature ranges of 284–355 °C
forcing PSLSB. The enhanced alignment and packing of and 290–361 °C, is attributed to the degradation of cellu-
PSLSB in 30PSLSBC15 result in more pronounced peaks lose, hemicellulose, and UPR (Binoj et al. 2023). Beyond
at these Bragg angles compared to 30PSLSBC5. Using 356 °C and 362 °C for 30PSLSBC5 and 30PSLSBC15,
Eq. (9) (Ramesh et al. 2022), the Crystallinity Index (CI) for correspondingly, the additional weight loss is suggestive of
30PSLSBC5 and 30PSLSBC15 was calculated to be 47% the breakdown of lignin and wax components. Due to the
and 49%, respectively. well aligned and compact stuffing of the 30PSLSBC15, due
to its improved aspect ratio, it retains 4.7% more residue
(Ic − Iam ) at 549 °C compared to 30PSLSBC5 (Manimekalai et al.
CI = (9)
Ic 2021). The DTG curves for both samples show a peak
at 338 °C for 30PSLSBC5 and 343 °C for 30PSLSBC15,
where Ic = maximum intensity of crystalline spike at 2θ =
signalling a shift in the decomposition pattern at higher tem-
22.6° and Iam = intensity of amorphous spike at 2θ = 16.3°.
peratures. The lesser weight loss across all stages of the
The enhanced thermo-mechanical features and improved
decomposition process highlights the superior thermal sta-
compactness of the 15 mm PSLSB-based bio-composite
bility of 30PSLSBC15 compared to 30PSLSBC5 similar
30PSLSBC15 are reflected in its higher Crystallinity Index
to the mechanical characteristics. Using Broido’s formula
(CI) compared to 30PSLSBC5. Crystallite sizes (CS) for
(11) (Palaniyappan et al. 2022), the activation energies (Ea )
the biocomposite specimens 30PSLSBC5 and 30PSLSBC15,
for 30PSLSBC5 and 30PSLSBC15 were calculated to be
estimated using Scherrer’s law (10) (Sampath et al. 2023),
68.5 kJ/mol and 71.6 kJ/mol, respectively.
were 13.6 nm and 12.4 nm, respectively. The smaller CS
value in 30PSLSBC15, in contrast to 30PSLSBC5, indicates
Ln (ln(1/y)) = −(E a /R)((1/T ) + K ) (11)
a reduced tendency to absorb moisture and improves the ten-
sile characteristics of the composite (Fig. 8).
where,R is the Universal Gas constant (8.32 J/mol K), y is
Kλ the Normalized weight, T is the Temperature in K.
CS = (10)
β cos θ

where, K = 0.89 is Scherrer’s constant, λ = wave length 4 Conclusion

of the radiation, β = peak’s full-width at half-maximum
(FWHM) and θ = Bragg’s diffraction angle. The thermal, mechanical, morphological, and water capti-
vation properties of bio-composites reinforced with PSLSB
3.9 Thermal analysis in a polyester matrix were evaluated at different fiber per-
centages by weight and fiber lengths. The biocomposite
Figure 9 displays the thermogravimetric (TG-DTG) profiles with 30% weight PSLSB, labelled 30PSLSBC5, exhibited
for the 30PSLSBC5 and 30PSLSBC15 specimens. This anal- superior tensile (63.60 MPa), flexural (56.80 MPa), hard-
ysis helps determine the suitability of these bio-composite ness (67 HRRW), and impact (5.33 J/cm2 ) features due to
materials for use at temperatures above room tempera- enhanced matrix moistening of the reinforcing materials.
ture. According to the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), The 30PSLSBC15 bio-composite, benefiting from improved
moisture is removed from the samples till 110 °C, lead- alignment and better packing of PSLSB within the resin,
ing to a weight loss of 7.1% for 30PSLSBC5 and 6.7% for showed increases in tensile (7.5%), flexural (4.01%), hard-
30PSLSBC15 (Sudhir et al. 2020; Ngah et al. 2022). Further ness (5.9%), and impact (4.12%) properties. Microscopic
heating up to 133 °C results in an additional weight loss of analysis indicated that the interaction between PSLSB and
about 11% for both samples, likely due to the decomposition UPR was more effective in 30PSLSBC15, attributed to a
of non-crystalline contents such as lignin. The PSLSB/UPR higher aspect ratio of the PSLSB. The compact arrangement
specimens then show stability within a specific temperature of PSLSB and its saturation with UPR in 30PSLSBC15 con-
range. The weight loss of 18.4% for 30PSLSBC5 and 17.1% tributed to a 13.03% and 16.4% decrease in water absorption
for 30PSLSBC15, observed between 223 to 283 °C and in distilled and underground water, respectively, compared
228 °C to 289 °C respectively, is attributed to the interruption to 30PSLSBC5. XRD analysis confirmed that 30PSLSBC15
of cellulose and hemicellulose (Gajendiran et al. 2023). The had a crystallinity index (CI) of 49% and a crystallite
smaller weight loss in 30PSLSBC15 is due to its more com- size (CS) of 12.4 nm. Additionally, the 30PSLSBC15 bio-
pact structure, which results from the improved alignment composite demonstrated heat resistance up to 227 °C,
and aspect ratio of the PSLSB. reduced density, and suitable mechanical properties, making
The significant weight loss of approximately 48% to 55% it appropriate for indoor construction applications in auto-
observed in the 30PSLSBC5 and 30PSLSBC15 samples, motive and marine industries. This might reduce the use of

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Fig. 8 XRD plots of

a 30PSLSBC5 and
b 30PSLSBC15

Fig. 9 TG-DTG curves of a 30PSLSBC5 and b 30PSLSBC15

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Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design (2025) 8:277 Page 13 of 15 277

harmful synthetic fibers in such applications and enhance Binoj JS, Mariatti J, Brailson Mansingh B, Bharathiraja G (2024)
the sustainability of the products. Further, the fibers can be Extraction and characterization of novel cellulosic biofiber from
peduncle of Areca catechu L. biowaste for sustainable biocom-
subjected to surface modifications before reinforcement to posites. Biomass Conv Bioref 14:20359–20367. https://doi.org/
improve the thermo-mechanical characteristics of the com- 10.1007/s13399-023-04081-4
posites and widen the scope of application in the society. Brailson Mansingh B, Binoj JS, Amirthaiah AMMS, Britto ASF
(2023a) Influence of SiC nanoparticles on properties of alkali-
Author contributions All the authors have equally contributed and has treated areca fruit husk fiber/hybrid polymer composites. J Appl
approved this manuscript before submission to peer-reviewed journals Polym Sci 140(10):e53591. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.53591
for publications. Brailson Mansingh B, Binoj JS, Quan TZ, Eugene WWL, Taweechai
A, Shukur AH, Kheng LG (2023b) Characterization and perfor-
Funding No funding was received for this work. mance of additive manufactured novel bio-waste polylactic acid
eco-friendly composites. J Polym Environ 31:2306–2320. https://
Data Availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the doi.org/10.1007/s10924-023-02758-5
current study. Brailson Mansingh B, Binoj JS, Shukur AH, Eugene Wong WL,
Suryanto H, Shengjie L, Kheng LG (2024) Feasibility study on
thermo-mechanical performance of 3D printed and annealed coir
Declarations fiber powder/polylactic acid eco-friendly biocomposites. Polym
Compos 45(7):6512–6524. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.28214
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. Brailson Mansingh B, Binoj JS, Shukur AH, Mariatti MJ, Siengchin
S, Sanjay MR, Bharath KN (2022) Characterization of natural
Ethics approval and consent to participate All the authors demonstrate cellulosic fiber from Cocos nucifera peduncle for sustainable bio-
that they have adhered to the accepted ethical standards of a genuine composites. J Nat Fibers 19(14):9373–9383. https://doi.org/10.
research study. Also, individual consent from all the authors was under- 1080/15440478.2021.1982827
taken to publish the data prior submitting to journal. Brifin SSS, Leo DWK, Brailson Mansingh B, Thooyavan Y, Anuja
Beatrice B (2024) Optimization of fiber length, loading and its
Consent for publication Written formal consent ensures that the pub- influence on overall characteristics of Licuala grandis peduncle
lisher has the author’s permission to publish research findings. fiber/polyester biocomposites for low density applications, multi-
scale multidiscip. Model Exp des 7:6097–6112. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s41939-024-00578-1
Chakkour M, Ould Moussa M, Khay I, Balli M, Ben Zineb T (2023)
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