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 PROGRAMMING
fOR
PRObleM SOlvING
Gujarat Technological University - 2018
About the Author

E Balagurusamy, is presently the Chairman of EBG Foundation, Coimbatore. In the past he has also held
the positions of member, Union Public Service Commission, New Delhi and Vice-Chancellor, Anna University,
Chennai. He is a teacher, trainer and consultant in the fields of Information Technology and Management.
He holds an ME (Hons) in Electrical Engineering and PhD in Systems Engineering from the Indian Institute
of Technology, Roorkee. His areas of interest include Object-Oriented Software Engineering, E-Governance:
Technology Management, Business Process Re-engineering and Total Quality Management.
A prolific writer, he has authored a large number of research papers and several books.
A recipient of numerous honors and awards, he has been listed in the Directory of Who's Who of Intellectuals
and in the Directory of Distinguished Leaders in Education.
 PROGRAMMING
fOR
PRObleM SOlvING
Gujarat Technological University - 2018

E Balagurusamy
Chairman
EBG Foundation
Coimbatore

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

CHENNAI

McGraw Hill Education Offices

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 McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
444/1, Sri Ekambara Naickr Industrial Estate, Alapakkam, Porur, Chennai-600 116

Programming for Problem Solving

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of
the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not
be reproduced for publication.
This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
Print Edition
ISBN (13 digit): 978-93-5316-278-8
ISBN (10 digit): 93-5316-278-5
E-book Edition
ISBN (13 digit): 978-93-5316-279-5
ISBN (10 digit): 93-5316-279-3
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Printed and bound in India.
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Preface

P
rogramming for Problem Solving requires a deep understanding of C. C is a powerful, flexible, portable
and elegantly structured programming language. Since C combines the features of high-level language
with the elements of the assembler, it is suitable for both systems and applications programming. It
is undoubtedly the most widely used general-purpose language today in operating systems, and embedded
system development. Its influence is evident in almost all modern programming languages. Since its
standardization in 1989, C has undergone a series of changes and improvements in order to enhance the
usefulness of the language.

Organization of the Book

Programming for Problem Solving starts with an Introduction to Computer Programming, Chapter 2 discusses
fundamentals of C. Control Structures in C is presented in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 deals with Arrays and
Strings. Chapter 5 discusses Functions. In Chapter 6 students can study Pointers. While Chapter 7 details
Structure. Dynamic Memory Allocation is discussed in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 details on File Management.

Salient Features of the Book

∑ Learning Objectives
∑ Key Concepts
∑ Content Tagged with LO
∑ Worked Out Problems
∑ Tips
∑ Closing Vignette
∑ Review Exercises – True False, Fill in the blanks, Questions, Programming Exercises – categorized into
LO and Difficulty level (E for Easy, M for Medium and H for High)

Acknowledgements
I owe special thanks to the entire team of McGraw Hill Education India.
A note of acknowledgement is due to the following reviewers for their valuable feedback.

Ms. Kalpana Mudaliar Gandhinagar Institute of Technology, Gandhinagar, Gujarat

H K Patnaik Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar
T V Gopal College of Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Unnati Nitin Chaudhari Tolani Maritime Institute, Pune, Maharashtra
Tanveer Ahmed Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi
Ravindra Divekar KJ Somaiya College of Engineering, Mumbai, Maharashtra
SC Dutta Birsa Institute of Technology, Sindri, Dhanbad, Jharkhand
D Lakshmi Adithya Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
vi Preface

This book is my sincere attempt to make a footprint on the immensely vast and infinite sands of knowledge.
I would request the readers to utilize this book to the maximum extent.
E Balagurusamy

Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be sent to info.
[email protected] (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
Contents

About the Author ii

Preface v

1. Introduction to Computer and Programming 1

Learning Objectives 1
Introduction 1
Generations of Computers 2
Classification of Computers 5
Basic Anatomy of a Computer System 7
Input Devices 8
Processor 9
Output Devices 10
Memory Management 12
Types of Computer Software 13
Overview of Operating System 14
MS Word 19
MS Excel System 21
MS Powerpoint System 22
Networking Concepts 23
Network Topologies 25
Network Protocols and Software 29
Decimal System 31
Binary System 32
Hexadecimal System 33
Octal System 34
Conversion of Numbers 35
Binary Arithmetic Operations 44
Logic Gates 52
Programming Languages 55
viii Contents

Translator Programs 58
Problem-Solving Techniques 59
Using the Computer 70
Learning Outcomes 70
Key Concepts 71
Review Questions 73
Discussion Questions 84

2. Fundamentals of C 87
Learning Objectives 87
History of C 87
Importance of C 89
Sample Program 1: Printing a Message 89
Sample Program 2: Adding Two Numbers 92
Sample Program 3: Interest Calculation 93
Sample Program 4: Use of Subroutines 95
Sample Program 5: Use of Math Functions 96
Basic Structure of C Programs 97
Programming Style 98
Executing a ‘C’ Program 99
UNIX System 99
MS-DOS System 102
Key Concepts 102
Always Remember 103
Review Questions 103
Debugging Exercises 105
Programming Exercises 105

3. Control Structure in C 107

Learning Objectives 107
Introduction 107
Decision Making with if Statement 108
Simple If Statement 108
The If.....Else Statement 111
Nesting of If....Else Statements 114
The Else If Ladder 117
The Switch Statement 121
The ? : Operator 125
The goto Statement 129
Key Concepts 132
 Contents ix

Always Remember 132

Brief Cases 132
Review Questions 137
Debugging Exercises 141
Programming Exercises 141

4. Array & String 145

Learning Objectives 145
Introduction 145
One-Dimensional Arrays 147
Declaration of One-dimensional Arrays 148
Initialization of One-dimensional Arrays 151
Two-Dimensional Arrays 156
Initializing Two-dimensional Arrays 161
Multi-dimensional Arrays 168
Dynamic Arrays 169
More About Arrays 170
Declaring and Initializing String Variables 170
Reading Strings from Terminal 171
Writing Strings to Screen 177
Arithmetic Operations on Characters 181
Putting Strings Together 183
Comparison of Two Strings 184
String-Handling Functions 184
Table of Strings 190
Other Features of Strings 192
Key Concepts 192
Always Remember 193
Brief Cases 194
Review Questions 210
Debugging Exercises 214
Programming Exercises 215

5. Functions 220
Learning Objectives 220
Introduction 220
Need for User-Defined Functions 221
A Multi-Function Program 221
Elements of User-Defined Functions 224
x Contents

Definition of Functions 224

Return Values and Their Types 227
Function Calls 228
Function Declaration 229
Category of Functions 231
No Arguments and No Return Values 231
Arguments but No Return Values 233
Arguments with Return Values 236
No Arguments but Returns a Value 241
Functions that Return Multiple Values 242
Nesting of Functions 243
Recursion 244
Passing Arrays to Functions 245
Passing Strings to Functions 250
The Scope, Visibility and Lifetime of Variables 251
Multifile Programs 260
Key Concepts 262
Always Remember 262
Brief Cases 263
Review Questions 266
Debugging Exercises 270
Programming Exercises 270

6. Pointers 273
Learning Objectives 273
Introduction 273
Understanding Pointers 274
Accessing the Address of a Variable 276
Declaring Pointer Variables 277
Initialization of Pointer Variables 278
Accessing a Variable Through its Pointer 279
Chain of Pointers 281
Pointer Expressions 282
Pointer Increments and Scale Factor 284
Pointers and Arrays 284
Pointers and Character Strings 288
Array of Pointers 290
Pointers as Function Arguments 291
Functions Returning Pointers 294
 Contents xi

Pointers to Functions 295

Pointers and Structures 297
Troubles with Pointers 299
Key Concepts 300
Always Remember 300
Brief Cases 301
Review Questions 306
Debugging Exercises 309
Programming Exercises 309

7. Structure 311
Learning Objectives 311
Introduction 311
Defining a Structure 312
Declaring Structure Variables 313
Accessing Structure Members 315
Structure Initialization 316
Copying and Comparing Structure Variables 318
Operations on Individual Members 320
Arrays of Structures 320
Arrays within Structures 323
Structures within Structures 324
Structures and Functions 326
Unions 329
Size of Structures 330
Bit Fields 330
Key Concepts 333
Always Remember 333
Brief Cases 334
Review Questions 338
Debugging Exercises 341
Programming Exercises 341

8. Dynamic Memory Allocation 344

Learning Objectives 344
Introduction 344
Dynamic Memory Allocation 344
Allocating a Block of Memory: malloc 345
Allocating Multiple Blocks of Memory: calloc 347
xii Contents

Releasing the Used Space: free 348

Altering the Size of a Block: realloc 348
Concepts of Linked Lists 350
Advantages of Linked Lists 353
Types of Linked Lists 354
Pointers Revisited 354
Creating a Linked List 356
Inserting an Item 360
Deleting an Item 363
Application of Linked Lists 365
Key Concepts 365
Always Remember 366
Brief Cases 366
Review Questions 372
Debugging Exercises 374
Programming Exercises 374

9. File Management 376

Learning Objectives 376
Introduction 376
Defining and Opening a File 377
Closing a File 378
Input/Output Operations on Files 379
Error Handling During I/O Operations 385
Random Access to Files 387
Command Line Arguments 394
Key Concepts 396
Always Remember 396
Review Questions 397
Debugging Exercises 398
Programming Exercises 398
 Roadmap to the Syllabus
Programming For Problem Solving
Code: 3110003

Introduction to computer and programming: Introduction, Basic block diagram and functions of various
components of computer, Concepts of Hardware and software, Types of software, Compiler and interpreter,
Concepts of Machine level, Assembly level and high level programming, Flowcharts and Algorithms

GO TO Chapter 1 Introduction to Computer and Programming

Fundamentals of C: Features of C language, structure of C Program, comments, header files, data types,
constants and variables, operators, expressions, evaluation of expressions, type conversion, precedence
and associativity, I/O functions

GO TO Chapter 2 Fundamentals of C

Control structure in C: Simple statements, Decision making statements, Looping statements, Nesting of
control structures, break and continue, goto statement

GO TO Chapter 3 Control Structure in C

Array & String: Concepts of array, one and two dimensional arrays, declaration and initialization of arrays,
string, string storage, Built-in-string functions
Recursion: Recursion, as a different way of solving problems. Example programs, such as Finding
Factorial, Fibonacci series, Ackerman function etc. Quick sort or Merge sort.

GO TO Chapter 4 Array & String

xiv Roadmap to the Syllabus

Functions: Concepts of user defined functions, prototypes, definition of function, parameters, parameter
passing, calling a function, recursive function, Macros, Pre-processing

GO TO Chapter 5 Functions

Pointers: Basics of pointers, pointer to pointer, pointer and array, pointer to array, array to pointer, function
returning pointer

GO TO Chapter 6 Pointers

Structure: Basics of structure, structure members, accessing structure members, nested structures, array
of structures, structure and functions, structures and pointers

GO TO Chapter 7 Structure

Dynamic memory allocation: Introduction to Dynamic memory allocation, malloc, calloc

GO TO Chapter 8 Dynamic Memory Allocation

File management: Introduction to file management and its functions

GO TO Chapter 9 File Management

Introduction to
Chapter
Computer and
Programming 1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO 1.1 Identify the various generations of computers
LO 1.2 Classify computers on the basis of different criteria
LO 1.3 Describe the computer system
LO 1.4 Classify various computer software
LO 1.5 Discuss various operating systems
LO 1.6 Discuss Microsoft software
LO 1.7 Know various networking concepts and protocols
LO 1.8 Identify the various positional number systems
LO 1.9 Carry out number conversions from one number system to another
LO 1.10 Explain how binary arithmetic operations are performed
LO 1.11 Describe primary logic gates
LO 1.12 Discuss various levels of programming languages
LO 1.13 Know various problem solving techniques and computer applications

introduction
A computer is an electronic machine that takes input from the user, processes the given input and generates
output in the form of useful information. A computer accepts input in different forms such as data, programs
and user reply. Data refer to the raw details that need to be processed to generate some useful information.
Programs refer to the set of instructions that can be executed by the computer in sequential or non-
sequential manner. User reply is the input provided by the user in response to a question asked by the
computer.
A computer includes various devices that function as an integrated system to perform several tasks
described above (Fig. 1.1). These devices are:
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
It is the processor of the computer that is responsible for controlling and executing instructions in the computer.
It is considered as the most significant component of the computer.
2 Programming for Problem Solving

Monitor
It is a screen, which displays information in visual form, after receiving the video signals from the computer.
Keyboard and Mouse
These are the devices, which are used by the computer, for receiving input from the user.

Fig. 1.1 The components of computer

Computers store and process numbers, letters and words that are often referred to as data.
l How do we communicate data to computers?
l How do the computers store and process data?
Since the computers cannot understand the Arabic numerals or the English alphabets, we should use
some ‘codes’ that can be easily understood by them.
In all modern computers, storage and processing units are made of a set of silicon chips, each contain-
ing a large number of transistors. A transistor is a two-state device that can be put ‘off’ and ‘on’ by passing
an electric current through it. Since the transistors are sensitive to currents and act like switches, we can
communicate with the computers using electric signals, which are represented as a series of ‘pulse’ and
‘no-pulse’ conditions. For the sake of convenience and ease of use, a pulse is represented by the code ‘1’
and a no-pulse by the code ‘0’. They are called bits, an abbreviation of ‘binary digits’. A series of 1s and
0s are used to represent a number or a character and thus they provide a way for humans and computers
to communicate with one another. This idea was suggested by John Von Neumann in 1946. The numbers
represented by binary digits are known as binary numbers. Computers not only store numbers but also
perform operations on them in binary form.
In this chapter, we discuss how the numbers are represented using what are known as binary codes, how
computers perform arithmetic operations using the binary representation, how digital circuits known as logic
gates are used to manipulate data, how instructions are designed using what are known as programming
languages and how algorithms and flow charts might help us in developing programs.

generations of computers
The history of computer development is often discussed in terms of different LO 1.1
generation of computers, as listed below. Identify the various
l First generation computers generations
l Second generation computers of computers
l Third generation computers
l Fourth generation computers
l Fifth generation computers
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parapegmatorum
233
disciplinis invenerunt et eas
posteris explicatas
reliquerunt.
quorum scientiae sunt
hominibus
suspiciendae, quod
tanta
cura fuerunt ut etiam
videantur divina
mente tempestatium
significatus post futu|ros
ante pronuntiare.
quas ob 15 (5)
res haec eorum curis
studiisque sunt
concedenda.

VII Nobis autem ab his

d
 separandae sunt
rationes et
explicandae
menstruae dierum
brevitatis itemque
dilatationis.
namque sol aequinoctiali
tempore ariete
libraque versando,
quas | e gnomone partes
habet novem, eas
umbrae facit viii 20
(10)
in declinatione caeli quae
est Romae. itemque
Athenis
quam magnae sunt
gnomonis partes
quattuor, umbrae
sunt tres, ad vii Rhodo v,
ad xi Tarenti ix, ad
quinque
＜Alexandriae＞ tres,
ceterisque omnibus
locis aliae alio
modo umbrae gno|monum
aequinoctiales a
natura rerum 25
(15)
1 postea s. x.
2 Athenodorus (Stoicus cf.
Hermes i p. 371):
achinapolus
(archinapolus S) x. |
enascentiā HS.
5 glagomeus x. |
zenophanes x.
6 quibus erebus natura (-rę
S ) x.
8 habeat excogitatus x.
9 ortus om. x. |
tempestatumque x. |
significatus HS: -tos EG.
10 euchemon HS, euzemon
EG. | callistus. mello. x.
hyp(p EGS)arcus x.
12 disciplinas x.
14 tempestatium H: -tum
EGS.
15 significatos x.
17 et EG: om. HS.
18 brevitates idemque
depalationes (HS,
 depalatationes EG) x.
20 habent x.
21 idemque a. quae (quę
EGS) m. x.
22 .iiii. EG.
23 .iii. EGS. | adquinq⁊ ii.

(HS, ad v. | ii. G, ad v·ii·

E) rhodo xv. (| H)
adtaranti . xi (undecim.
E) quinque (v. EG) adtres
(iii. EG) x.
24 coterrisque HS (sed in m.
Sc ꝉ cęteris, ut Lc),
terrisque EG. | locis EGS:
lonis H.

Plain text
2 inveniuntur disparatae.
itaque in
quibuscumque locis
horologia
erunt describenda, eo loci
sumenda est
aequinoctialis
umbra, et si erunt
quemadmodum
Romae gnomonis
partes
novem, umbrae octonae,
describatur ＜linea
＞ in planitia et
e media προϲ ορθαϲ
erigatur | ut sit ad
normam quae 5 (20)
dicitur gnomon, et a linea
quae erit planities in
linea
gnomonis circino novem
spatia dimetiantur, |
et quo loco 234
nonae partis signum fuerit
centrum constituatur
ubi erit
littera a, et diducto circino
ab eo centro ad
 lineam planitiae
ubi erit littera b, circinatio
circuli describatur,
10
3 quae dicitur meridiana.
deinde ex novem
partibus, quae
sunt a | planitia ad
gnomonis centrum,
sumantur et (5)
viii

signentur in linea quae est

in planitia ubi erit
littera c.
haec autem erit gnomonis
aequinoctialis
umbra. et ab eo
signo et littera c per
centrum ubi est
littera a linea
perducatur, 15
ubi erit solis aequinoctialis
radius. tunc a centro
diducto circino ad | lineam
planitiae aequilatatio
signetur (10)
ubi erit littera e sinisteriore
parte et i dexteriore
in extremis
lineae circinationis, et per
 centrum perducenda
＜linea＞, ut aequa duo
hemicyclia sint
divisa. haec autem
20
4 linea a mathematicis dicitur
horizon. deinde
circinationis
totius sumenda pars est xv,
| et circini centrum
conlocandum (15)
in linea circinationis quo
loci secat eam
lineam
aequinoctialis radius ubi
erit littera f, et
signandum
dextra ac sinistra ubi sunt
litterae gh. deinde
ab his 25
lineae usque ad lineam
planitiae
perducendae sunt,
ubi
erunt litterae tr. ita erit
solis radius unus
hibernus
4 EG. | octogenae (ę) x.
viiii.

| describantur inplanitia
& emedia prosorthas
(HS, porthas EG) x.
6 q. erit planities x (gen., ut
materies p. 58, 24. 60,
12. notities p. 133, 9. cf.
ap. Gell. 9, 14 Verg.
georg. 1, 208).
7 circini HG, circū S. |
demetiantur x.

8 partis G: -tes HS.

9 (non 17) deducto x. |
ablinea planitia x.
11 q. s. inplanitia x.
13 qua est H.
18 littera . e . HS: .e . littera
G. | p. et inde alteriore
x.
19 lineis c. x (cf. p. 235, 3). |
ꝑducendū ut x.
21 linea GS: lineā H. |
horı⟦o⟧zon H, horizon G:
orizon S.
22 xv HG: xii S
22 .xv. HG: .xii. S.
23 quo G: quod (qđ S) HS.
24 f: .c. x.
25 ac om. x. | ab his lineis u.
x; (scil. ab his et a
centro a).

Plain text
 | alter aestivus contra
autem e littera i erit
quo secat (20)
circinationem linea quae
est traiecta per
centrum ubi est
littera a, et contra g et h
litterae erunt l et k,
et
5 contra c et f et a erit littera
n. tunc perducendae

sunt
diametroe ab g ad l et ab h

ad k. quae erit
superior, 5
partis erit | aestivae,
inferior hibernae.
eaeque diametroe
235
sunt aeque mediae
dividendae ubi erunt
litterae m et o,
ibique centra signanda, et
per ea signa et
centrum a
linea ad extrema lineae
circinationis est
perducenda ubi
 erunt litterae p q. | haec
erit linea προϲ
ορθαϲ radio 10 (5)
aequinoctiali, vocabitur
autem haec linea
mathematicis
rationibus
axon. et ab eisdem centris
diducto circino ad
extremas
diametros describantur
hemicyclia, quorum
unum
6 erit aestivum alterum
hibernum. deinde in
quibus locis
secant lineae paralleloe |
lineam eam quae
dicitur horizon, 15
(10)
in dexteriore parte erit
littera s, in
sinisteriore v, et ab
extremo hemicyclio ubi est
littera g, ducatur
linea parallelos
axoni ad sinistrum
hemicyclium ubi est
littera h.
haec autem parallelos linea
vocitatur logotomus.
et tum
View as image

1 altera ae(ę S)stivus HS. |

contra aū (HS, autē G)
littera .i. erit (erit om. G,
add. Gc) qui secat x.
2 lineae (HS, -ę G) quę est x.
| ubi erunt (er᷎ H)
litterae(ę GS) i . k . l . m.
& (et G) contra k . lineae
(-ę G) erunt (er̅ t̅ G) k . h
. x . i (xi ante corr. G).
5 diametro ab c. ad i. et ab
h. (| H) quae erit inferior

partis . erit aestive (H,

ęstivę GS) superior
hibernae. x.
7 aequae (ęque GS)
diametro x. | m et o: .o.
& (et G) .p. x.
8 centrum .c. lineae ad
extremas lineae
circinationes | sunt
ꝑducendae ubi er᷎
litterae . g . r . f . r. ◌
Hęc erit | (sic) H, item
(sine punctis tamen . q .
p t r Hęc) SG
 p . t . r. Hęc) SG.
10 prosorthas H: proshorthas
S, pros horthas G.
11 heę (sic) S. | ọ̇ rationibus
G c.
12 deducto x.
13 emiciclia ꝉ icydia (sic in
ipso textu) S: | icyclia H,
iciclya G.
15 parallelon & lineā eā x.

16 littera e (littera¦e. Gc) |

in sinisteriore .T. ◌ & ab
littera S. ducatur linea
paralle|los axon ad
extremum hemicycliū ubi
erit littera .v. ◡ & ab c.
ad sinistrā hemicyclii ⊙
item parallelos linea |
ducatur ad littera .x. (sic)
H (et LP) et similiter
(sine punctis tamen) SG
(ubi ad litterā .x.).
19 lineae (-ę GS) vocitantur
locothomus
(loco‿thomus Gc) x.
Plain text
 circini centrum
conlocandum est eo
| loci quo secat eam
(15)
lineam aequinoctialis
radius, ubi erit littera
d, et diducendum

ad eum locum quo secat

circinationem
aestivus
radius ubi est littera h. e
centro aequinoctiali
intervallo
aestivo circinatio circuli
menstrui agatur, qui
menaeus 5
7 dicitur. ita habebitur
analemmatos
deformatio. | cum
hoc (20)
ita sit descriptum et
explicatum, sive per
hibernas lineas
sive per aestivas sive per
aequinoctiales aut
etiam | per 236
menstruas in
subiectionibus
 rationes horarum
erunt ex
analemmatos
describendae,
subiciunturque in eo
multae 10
varietates et genera
horologiorum et
describuntur
rationibus
his artificiosis. omnium
autem figurarum
descriptionumque
| earum effectus unus, uti
dies aequinoctialis
(5)
brumalisque itemque
solstitialis in
duodecim partes
aequaliter
sit divisus. quas ob res non
pigritia deterritus
praetermisi 15
sed ne multa scribendo
offendam, a
quibusque inventa
sunt genera
descriptionesque
horologiorium
 exponam.
neque enim nunc | nova
genera invenire
possum nec aliena
(10)
pro meis praedicanda
videntur. itaque
quae nobis tradita
sunt et a quibus sint
inventa dicam. 20

VIII Hemicyclium excavatum ex

quadrato ad
enclimaque
succisum Berosus
Chaldaeus dicitur
invenisse. scaphen
sive
| hemisphaerium
Aristarchus Samius,
idem etiam discum
(15)
in planitia. arachnen
Eudoxus astrologus,
nonnulli dicunt
Apollonium. plinthium sive
lacunar, quod etiam
in circo 25
1 eam lineam: circinationem
x.

2 d: .e. x. | deducendum x.
5 manaeus (mana|eus S)
HS, maneus G.
6 analematos HG
(ánalemmatos S).
7 sive ꝑhibernas lineas sive
aequinoctialis radius
ubi|erit littera e. sed
deducendū ad eū locū
quo secat circi|nationem
ꝑaestivas sive
ꝑaequinoctiales etc. (sic
repetendo) H, item S et
(ubi sed | ducendū) G.
9 rationes HS(Gc): om. G.

10 anallēatios H,
analematios G,
analemmatios S. |
subicianturque x.
14 idemque x. | xii. G.
15 divisus G(S): -sū . H (et
ante ips. corr. S, ubi pro
-ſu · nunc videtur ſuſ i. e.
 per punctum et pro
puncto inseritur ſ). |
p̄ (pre S)termissis x.
20 inventi H. | 22 berosus
GS: berossus H. |
scaphen HS: scapen G.
23 hemisphe(spe G)rium x. |
aristharcus H, -tarcus
GS.
24 arachanen x.
25 panthium (-ū G) x. |
lacunar G et (ubi r ex s
ras.) Sc: -nas HS.

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