Socialism

Means / Revolutionary Evolutionary

Process
Ends / Fundamentalism Revisionism
Outcome
Strand Name Revolutionary (Democratic Social Third Way
socialism Socialism) democracy
Key thinker(s) Marx & Engles Webb Crosland Giddens
Luxemburg

Tension within Socialism

Principle Revolutionary Social Democracy Third way
Socialism
Collectivism  ‘From each according  Nationalise the  Socialism can
to ability to each ‘commanding be adapted
according to need’ heights’ of the and delivered
economy via the
capitalist
system
Common  Humans are naturally  Human nature has  Humans
Humanity sociable, identifying a predisposition for balance their
themselves as part of a fair and justice wish for a fair
a group but their society society against
behaviour is socially individual
determined need
Equality  Absolute equality  Greater social &  Equality of
economic equality opportunity
Social Class  Class conflict is at the  Break down the  Class in no
core of society barriers between longer
classes to minimise relevant in
distinctions modern
society
Workers’ Control  Means of production  More important to  State should
should be placed in regulate capitalism not seek to
the hands of the and focus on expand
worker control rather than ownership
ownership
 Socialism Core principles

Revolutionary Socialism
Key thinkers:
  Marx and Engles
 Luxemburg
Key terms:

Fraternity; Cooperation; Capitalism; Common ownership; Communism

Collectivism:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• collectivism – to cover how collective human effort is both of greater practical value to the economy and moral
value to society than the effort of individuals.

Evidence from the strand for collectivism:

Marx and Engels
 Society is shaped by collective relations of production, not individual consciousness.

 The individual is alienated in capitalism because what they produce is owned collectively by the
capitalist class, not by themselves.

 All economic value comes from human labour, but capitalists appropriate this value (surplus
value) for themselves.

 The working class is exploited by the economic system, highlighting the need for collective action.

 Class struggle is the central fact of social evolution—history is driven by collective class struggles,
not individual actions.

 Marx predicts the overthrow of capitalism will result in a communal society free of class divisions
or government.

 Communism is based on the principle: “From each according to his ability, to each according to
his needs.”

Rosa Luxemburg

 Believed trade unionism and parliamentary politics alone were insufficient; collective
revolutionary mass action was necessary.

 Advocated for mass strikes as the most valuable tool for the proletariat, emphasizing
spontaneous, collective action.

 Insisted that the dictatorship of the proletariat should be brought about by the masses, not
imposed by a small elite.

 Demanded political power for workers’ and soldiers’ councils (soviets)—democratic, collective
bodies representing the working class.

 Criticized attempts to centralize power in the hands of a few, always emphasizing democracy and
mass participation.
Community Humanity:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• common humanity – to cover the nature of humans as social creatures with a tendency to co-operation,
sociability, and rationality, and how the individual cannot be understood without reference to society, as human
behaviour is socially determined.

Evidence from the strand for common humanity:

Marx and Engels
 Marx saw humans as fundamentally productive beings whose labour creates all economic value,
emphasizing what unites people rather than what divides them.

 Alienation under capitalism is described as a universal, nonhuman situation—all workers,

regardless of background, experience this loss of self and connection.

 The concept of class consciousness is rooted in the idea that workers, through shared experience
of exploitation, realize their common interests and humanity.

 The goal of communism is a communal society free of class divisions, where everyone’s needs are
met:

 “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”

 Marx argued that capitalist production exhausts both the earth and the worker, highlighting a
shared vulnerability and responsibility for both people and the planet.

Rosa Luxemburg

 Luxemburg’s belief in mass action and spontaneous revolution was based on faith in the collective
power and creativity of ordinary people.

 She argued that the dictatorship of the proletariat should be brought about by the masses
themselves, not imposed by a small elite, reflecting trust in the wisdom and agency of all people.

 Luxemburg opposed imperialism and racism, criticizing capitalism’s exploitation of all races and
peoples, and advocating for international solidarity among workers.

Equality:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• equality – is a fundamental value of socialism – to cover the disagreements among socialists about the nature of
equality and how it is critical to the state, society, the economy and human nature

Evidence from the strand for equality:

Marx and Engels
 Marx argued that all economic value is created by human labour, but under capitalism, the value
is unfairly appropriated by capitalists, leading to exploitation and inequality.

 The working class is systemically exploited, resulting in a society divided into two main classes:
the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).

 Marx’s vision of communism is a society free of class divisions, with goods distributed based on
need, not status or wealth:

 “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”

  The dictatorship of the proletariat is intended as a transitional phase to achieve genuine social
and economic equality.

Rosa Luxemburg

 Luxemburg believed that only a revolutionary mass movement could achieve true equality, as
parliamentary and trade union reforms were insufficient.

 She argued that the dictatorship of the proletariat should be brought about by the masses,
ensuring that all oppressed people have the power to liberate themselves.

 Luxemburg’s opposition to imperialism and racism reflected her commitment to international

equality and solidarity among all workers, regardless of nationality or race.

Social Class:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• social class – a group of people in society who have the same socio-economic status – to cover the extent to
which class impacts on socialists’ views of society, the state, and the economy

Evidence from the strand for social class:

Marx and Engels
 Marx’s theory of historical materialism states that “the mode of production in material life
determines the general character of the social, political, and intellectual processes of life,”
highlighting how class position shapes all aspects of society.

 Under capitalism, there are two main classes:

 Bourgeoisie: Owners of the means of production (capitalists).

 Proletariat: Workers who sell their labour for wages.

 Marx describes the relationship between these classes as inherently exploitative: capitalists
appropriate the surplus value created by workers, leading to systematic class exploitation.

 The class struggle is central to social change:

 “The history of all hitherto existing human society is the history of class struggles.”

 The development of capitalism intensifies class opposition, with the proletariat destined to
overthrow the bourgeoisie.

 Class consciousness arises when workers become aware of their shared exploitation, leading to
revolutionary potential.

 Marx predicts that communism will result in a classless society, abolishing all class divisions.

Rosa Luxemburg

 Luxemburg’s theory of revolution centred on the oppressed masses (the working class) as the
agents of change.

 She believed that only mass action and the collective power of the proletariat could achieve
socialism, not elite or parliamentary politics.

 Luxemburg’s support for workers’ and soldiers’ councils (soviets) as vehicles for political power
 highlights her focus on class-based organization.

 She critiqued imperialism as a system for the global exploitation of labour by capitalist classes.

Workers’ Control:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• workers’ control − to cover the importance and the extent of control over the economy and/or state and how it
is to be achieved.

Evidence from the strand for workers’ control:

Marx and Engels
 Marx argued that under capitalism, workers are alienated because the products of their labour
and the means of production are owned and controlled by capitalists, not by the workers
themselves.

 The exploitation of the working class is central to Marx’s critique; he envisioned a revolution
where the proletariat would seize control of the means of production.

 In the transition to communism, Marx advocated for a communal society where production and
distribution are collectively managed, with the principle:

 “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”

 The concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat involves the working class collectively holding
power and managing society, rather than a capitalist elite.

Rosa Luxemburg

 Luxemburg believed in the power of mass strikes and spontaneous action by the working class to
challenge capitalist control and achieve socialism.

 She argued for the dictatorship of the proletariat to be brought about by the masses themselves,
not imposed by a small elite, ensuring that workers directly control the revolutionary process.

 Luxemburg and the Spartacus League demanded political power for workers’ and soldiers’
councils (soviets)—democratic bodies run by and for workers, representing a model of direct
workers’ control over political and economic life.

Social Democracy
Key thinker:
 Crosland
Key terms:
Fraternity; Cooperation; Capitalism; Common ownership; Communism
Collectivism:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• collectivism – to cover how collective human effort is both of greater practical value to the economy and moral
value to society than the effort of individuals.
Evidence from the strand for collectivism:
Crosland and Social Democracy
 Emphasized a mixed economy with collective provision of key services (education, health, welfare)
and collective responsibility for social welfare.
 Focused on reducing inequality through collective action—progressive taxation, social services,
and public investment.
 Downplayed individual ownership of production, instead prioritizing collective well-being and
 social justice.
Community Humanity:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• common humanity – to cover the nature of humans as social creatures with a tendency to co-operation,
sociability, and rationality, and how the individual cannot be understood without reference to society, as human
behaviour is socially determined.
Evidence from the strand for common humanity:
Crosland and Social Democracy
 Crosland’s revisionism focused on personal liberty, social welfare, and equality for all, not just a
particular class or group.
 Social democracy’s emphasis on universal education, healthcare, and social services reflects a
belief in the equal worth and potential of every individual.
 Policies aimed at reducing inequality and expanding opportunity are justified by the principle
that everyone deserves a fair chance and a decent standard of life.
Equality:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• equality – is a fundamental value of socialism – to cover the disagreements among socialists about the nature of
equality and how it is critical to the state, society, the economy and human nature
Evidence from the strand for equality:
Crosland and Social Democracy
 Crosland’s revisionism focused on personal liberty, social welfare, and equality for all, rather than
just nationalization of industry.
 Social democracy under Crosland emphasized redistribution of wealth through progressive
taxation, expanded educational opportunities, and social services to reduce inequality.
 The goal was to create a mixed economy that balanced private enterprise with public provision of
key services, ensuring fairer outcomes and greater equality of opportunity.
Social Class:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• social class – a group of people in society who have the same socioeconomic status – to cover the extent to which
class impacts on socialists’ views of society, the state, and the economy
Evidence from the strand for social class:
Crosland and Social Democracy
 Crosland’s revisionism acknowledged the persistence of class but sought to address class
inequalities through redistribution, expanded education, and social services.
 Social democracy aimed to reduce class divisions by promoting equality of opportunity and social
mobility, even within a mixed economy.
Workers’ Control:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• workers’ control − to cover the importance and the extent of control over the economy and/or state and how it is
to be achieved.
Evidence from the strand for workers’ control:
Crosland and Social Democracy
 While Crosland’s revisionism moved away from nationalization as the sole route to socialism, he
still supported worker participation and influence in the management of key industries and
services.
 Social democracy under Crosland emphasized the importance of trade unions and collective
bargaining, giving workers a significant voice in workplace decisions and conditions.

Third Way
Key thinkers:
 Giddens
Key terms:
Fraternity; Cooperation; Capitalism; Common ownership; Communism
Collectivism:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• collectivism – to cover how collective human effort is both of greater practical value to the economy and moral
value to society than the effort of individuals.
Evidence from the strand for collectivism:
 Giddens rejects traditional top-down collectivism (e.g., state ownership of all industry) but argues
for a “social investment state” where government and individuals work together to solve shared
problems.
 Supports community responsibility and “active civil society,” encouraging voluntary and public
sector collaboration.
 Emphasizes partnerships between government, business, and citizens to address social issues
(e.g., welfare-to-work programs).
 Believes in collective action to tackle risks of globalization (e.g., climate change, unemployment),
but within a framework that preserves individual initiative.

Community Humanity:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• common humanity – to cover the nature of humans as social creatures with a tendency to co-operation,
sociability, and rationality, and how the individual cannot be understood without reference to society, as human
behaviour is socially determined.
Evidence from the strand for common humanity:
 Argues that in a globalized world, people are increasingly interconnected, and social justice
requires recognizing our shared vulnerabilities and interdependence.
 Advocates for policies that combat exclusion and promote social inclusion for all, regardless of
background.
 Supports multiculturalism and respect for diversity, while emphasizing the need for social
cohesion and mutual respect.

Equality:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• equality – is a fundamental value of socialism – to cover the disagreements among socialists about the nature of
equality and how it is critical to the state, society, the economy and human nature
Evidence from the strand for equality:
 Redefines equality as equality of opportunity rather than strict equality of outcome.
 Focuses on reducing poverty and social exclusion rather than enforcing income levelling.
 Supports investment in education, training, and welfare-to-work schemes to enable all citizens to
participate fully in society.
 Argues for a “positive welfare” approach: empowering people to help themselves, rather than
passive dependency.
Social Class:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• social class – a group of people in society who have the same socioeconomic status – to cover the extent to
which class impacts on socialists’ views of society, the state, and the economy
Evidence from the strand for social class:
 Accepts that class divisions persist but sees them as less rigid and less central than in classical
socialism.
 Emphasizes the rise of a “knowledge economy” and new forms of inequality (e.g., based on
education, skills, or digital access).
 Focuses on social mobility and the need to remove barriers to advancement for disadvantaged
 groups, rather than waging class struggle.
 Argues that policy should address new risks and insecurities faced by all classes in a rapidly
changing world.

Workers’ Control:
Please explore how human nature, the state, society, and the economy relate to:
• workers’ control − to cover the importance and the extent of control over the economy and/or state and how it
is to be achieved.
Evidence from the strand for workers’ control:
 Does not advocate traditional workers’ control (e.g., direct management of firms by workers or
nationalization).
 Promotes stakeholder involvement: workers, employers, and communities should all have a voice
in how organizations are run.
 Encourages partnerships at work (e.g., employee participation, flexible working, lifelong learning)
to empower workers within a market economy.
 Believes in balancing workers’ rights with business flexibility and competitiveness in a global
market.