Calculation of the Standard Model Parameters and Particles Based on a SU(4) Preon Model
Calculation of the Standard Model Parameters and Particles Based on a SU(4) Preon Model
https://www.scirp.org/journal/jmp
ISSN Online: 2153-120X
ISSN Print: 2153-1196
Jan Helm
Keywords
SU(4), Generalization of Weak Interaction, Extension of Standard Model,
Numerical Minimization of Action, Hyper-Color, Preon
1. Introduction
The Standard Model of Particle Physics (SM) formulated in its final form in
mid-seventies, is a very successful theory: in spite of repeated search for devia-
tion from observation, after 50 years there is not a single experimental result
contradicting it.
Still, it has several shortcomings, which make it hard to accept as a final
theory, so it is generally considered to be incomplete.
SM has the following problems [1] [2] [3] [4]:
▪ SM does not fully explain baryon asymmetry (observed imbalance of matter
and antimatter)
▪ SM does not explain the left-right-chiral asymmetry of the electro-weak
force (spontaneous symmetry breaking SU(2)LxSU(1)R)
▪ SM does not explain the CP violation in kaons, it has to be introduced as a
complex phase in the quark mixing Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix
▪ SM does not naturally incorporate neutrino oscillations and their non-zero
masses, the masses are introduced by hand, and neutrino oscillations are in-
serted by introducing the purely experimental Pontecorvo-Maki-Nakagawa-
Sakata (PMNS) matrix
▪ Pauli-SU(2) weak interaction is mediated by massive W- and Z-bosons,
which is hard to accept from the relativistic point-of-view: all fundamental inte-
ractions should propagate with maximum velocity c, like gravitation, electro-
magnetism, and color interaction. Furthermore, this has remarkable parallels to
the early interpretations of color interaction as a Yukawa force mediated by
massive pions.
▪ SM does not contain any candidates for the dark matter particle required by
observational cosmology
▪ SM has no explanation for the observed three generations of quarks and
leptons
▪ SM has 29 parameters, which makes hard to accept as a complete theory
A starting point for an extended formulation of SM appears to be the fifth
problem in the above list: Pauli-SU(2) weak interaction.
A plausible solution of the problem is the introduction of a SU(4) interaction
with four charges and fifteen massless field bosons in analogy to the concept of
the SU(3) color interaction with three charges (colors r g b), eight massless
field-bosons (gluons) and eightfold symmetry introduced by Gell-Mann, Fritsch
and Leutwyler in 1973.
SU(4) interaction, in the following called hypercolor, in analogy to the color
interaction, yields a renormalizable quantum gauge field theory, with confine-
ment and asymptotic freedom.
Pauli-SU(2) weak interaction becomes then the Yukawa weak force of the
SU(4)-hypercolor interaction, and the mass of the Yukawa-bosons W and Z
(~90 GeV) give the critical energy= ( Ehc 2=m ( Z ) 180 GeV ) in analogy to the
Callan-Symanzik color critical energy Ecol = 220 MeV .
So in reality the extended weak hypercolor force is roughly 1000 times
stronger than the color force.
A plausible formulation of the four charges is hc = (L−, L+, R−, R+), where (+,
−) is the electric charge, and (L, R) is the (left, right) chirality. The chirality χ is a
fundamental invariant for spinors (left-chiral and right-chiral Weyl-spinors are
components of a Dirac-bispinor).
This hc-charge definition is the only possible, because it has to encompass the
electric charge (because of the electro-weak interaction) and chirality (because of
the chiral asymmetry in SM).
( 1
)
L ψ iγ µ Dµ − m ψ − F a µν Fa µν
=
4
(1)
For the QHCD based on SU(4) Aµ a ( x ) is the hc-boson field, for 15 hc-bosons
and λa are the 15 generators of the SU(4), a = 1, ,15 , the hc-matrices [14] [15]
(in analogy to the 8 Gell-Mann matrices for the SU(3)):
0 1 0 0 0 −i 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0
λ1 = λ2 = λ3 = (5)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 −i 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
λ4 = λ5 =
1 0 0 0 i 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0
0 0 1 0 0 0 −i 0 1 0 1 0 0
λ6 = λ7 = λ8 =
0 1 0 0 0 i 0 0 3 0 0 −2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −i
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
λ9 = λ10 =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 i 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −i
λ11 = λ12 =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 i 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
λ13 = λ14 = λ15 =
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −i 6 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 −3
The symbol F a µν the gauge invariant field strength tensor, analogous to the
electromagnetic field strength tensor, F µν , in quantum electrodynamics. It is
given by
F a µν =
∂ µ Aaν − ∂ν Aa µ + g f abc Ab µ Acν ,
( 1
)
Tr T aT b = δ ab T a , T b = i f abcT c ,
2
where for SU(3) and SU(4) T a = λa 2 , and where the fabc are structure constants
of the Lie algebra, and the covariant derivative defined as
D ≡ ∂ − i g Aa T resp. D ≡ ∂ − i g A a λ , where Aa is the field carrier,
µ µ µ a µ µ µ a µ
A aµ ≡ Aa µ 2 is the rescaled field, and g is the coupling constant, and for a SU(N)
group one has N2 − 1 generators.
The relation for the field tensor
F a µν =
∂ µ Aaν − ∂ν Aa µ + g f abc Ab µ Acν
The field has the property of being self-interacting and equations of motion
that one obtains are said to be semilinear, as nonlinearities are both with and
without derivatives. This means that one can manage this theory only by per-
turbation theory, with small nonlinearities.
From the given Lagrangian one can derive the equations of motion given by
∂ µ F a µν + g f abc Abµ F c µν =
0 (Yang-Mills-equations), (7)
resp. ∂ µ F a µν + g f abc A bµ F c µν =
0
(D )
µ a
Fµν =0
Dµ F µν = 0
g → g +δ g M → M + δ M φ =→
Zφ0 (1 + δη )φ
Z ′φ0 M =
G ( ) → (1 + nδη ) G (
n n)
∂M
we get the Callan-Symanzik equation
∂ ∂ ∂ (n)
M + β ( g ) + nγ + mγ m G ( x1 , x2 , , xn ; m, M , g ) =
0,
∂M ∂g ∂m
∂η ∂g M ∂η
where γ = − M β =M γm =
∂M ∂M m ∂M
g2 (M )
g 2 ( m) =
m2
resulting in first order in 1 + g 2 ( M ) β 0 log 2
M
Which becomes for
1
m → ∞ g ( m) = (9a)
m
2 β 0 log
M
g 2 ( m) 1 12π
s ( m)
α= = = (9b)
4π m 2
8πβ 0 log
Λ
(11N − 2n f ) log mΛ 2
αs = coupling constant
where
M = Λ ≈ 220 MeV critical energy of QCD, Λ ≈ m(pion)2 = 280 MeV
nf = 3: number of quark flavours
3
g c ( m ) = 4π
2
m
2 (11N − 2n f ) log Λ + cGE 0
2
1
= 4π
2
m
18 log + cGE 0 2
Λ
1
for the numerical calculation we
= set cGE 0 = 0.683 , which is con-
m( p)
log
Λ QCD
sistent with the Callan-Symanzik relation for m > 2Λ , as shown in the plot
Figure 2 below.
3
g hc ( m ) = 4π
2
m
2 (11N − 2n f ) log + cGE1
2
Λ hc
3
= 4π
2
m
76 log + cGE1
2
Λ hc
1
we set = ( Z 0 ) 180 GeV in analogy to the QCD, and cGE1 =
Λ hc 2m = ,
m (t )
log
m(d )
with the masses of the top- and the d-quark: this should assess the logarithmic
scale of the generation energy ratio.
Both settings are of course only a plausible guess, but these values work very
well for the preon model, as we will see.
The coupling constant g hc for the QHCD is shown in the plot Figure 3 be-
low.
The peak is much higher than in QCD, which reflects the enormous span of
the mass scale in the Standard Model.
The corresponding critical length of QHCD
c 1.96 ∗ 10−7 eV ⋅ m
r= = = 1.08 ∗ 10−18 m
Λ hc
0 hc
180 GeV
which is about 1/1000 of the proton radius: the energy scale of the QHCD is by a
factor 1000 larger, and consequently the length scale by a factor 1000 smaller
than in QCD. This agrees with the experimental assessment of the quark radius
being about 1/1000 of the proton radius.
The weak Pauli interaction breaks the chiral symmetry and becomes
SU(2)LxSU(1)R gauge interaction.
It combines via the Glashow-Weinberg mechanism with the electromagnetic
interaction to become electroweak interaction SU(2)L(W)xSU(1)(Z) xSU(1)(γ)
with W-boson, Z-boson, photon.
Finally, the masses of the basic particles are generated via the Higgs mechan-
ism through SU(n) symmetry breaking by the higgs H particle.
Based on this scaffold, the SM developped into a powerful theory, which de-
scribes all of particle physics correctly with no deviation from experiment until
present.
Generation 1
Λ hc
we set = ( Z 0 ) 180 GeV in analogy to the QCD, and
Λ hc 2m =
1
=cGE1 = 0.095
m (t )
log
m(d )
The configuration of the SM in the SU4PM
Every basic particle of the SM is assigned a preon and a hc-boson configura-
tion.
The preon configuration of a fermion (leptons and quarks) occupies two of
the 4 positions in a hc-quadruplet by a Dirac-bispinor, e.g. for electron with in-
rL − rR −
dex pair (1, 3) we have in position 1 and in position 3, ac-
0 0
cording to the hc-charge. The hc-quadruplet has the hc-charges (L−, L+, R−,
R+).
There are 3 possible hc-boson configurations for an index-pair (i, j), which are
consistent with the SU(4)-symmetry: 1 hc-boson Aij corresponding to first gen-
eration of flavor = 1, 4 hc-bosons Aij + Aij + Akl + Akl corresponding to flavor
= 2 (the bar specifies the conjugate coupler, and (k, l) is the complementary in-
dex pair, e.g. for electron it is (2, 4)), and finally all 15 hc-bosons corresponding
to flavor = 3.
The fermions (leptons and quarks) have two independent preon-components
u1 and u2, they form a bispinor with spin S = 1/2.
The bosons (weak boson W, Z, H) have only one independent preon-component
u1, which is a linear combination of two preons, the spins add up to S = 1 for W
and Z, or to S = 0 for H, e.g. for Z = Z0 u= 1 ( ( rL − ) + ( rR − ) ) 2 and
u1 0 u1 0
Z 0 = , , , 2 . The weak bosons W and Z0 are carrier of the
0 u1 0 u1
residual weak interaction, and the higgs H generates masses for all r-containing
particles: leptons, quarks, weak bosons and the r-preon itself.
The SU4PM predicts the existence of hypothetical strong neutrinos, which
consist of qq with electrical charge Q = 0 and color charge Qc = 0. They are
heavy (m(qnu) = 23.2 MeV) practically non-interacting particles: the interact
only via very heavy q-boson Zq (m(Zq) = 644 GeV)), i.e. they interact only at
high resonance energies with small cross-sections. There is a new hypothetical
model for Dark Matter called SIMP with mass around 100 MeV and interacting
strongly at high resonance energies [26]. The strong-neutrinos do fit into this
category.
Furthermore, the SU4PM predicts the existence of strong bosons Zq and Hq,
in analogy to weak bosons Z0 and H, built of q-preons instead of r-preons. the
strong neutrinos interact with themselves via Zq, and Hq generates masses for
strong neutrinos and the q-preon.
The decay of neutron and pion requires (to safeguard the conservation of
hc-charge) the existence of further weak neutrinos: the non-chiral (sterile) neu-
trinos with masses similar to lepton neutrinos. The nc-neutrinos are neutral,
non-chiral, and interact with themselves and lepton neutrinos via the weak
ZL-boson similar to the Z0, but left-chiral.
The SU4PM SU(4) symmetry is spontaneously broken into the electroweak
symmetry group
SU(2)L,ch-weak ⊗ SU(1)n-weak ⊗ SU(1)em with their exchange bosons {Wμ} ⊗ {Zμ}
⊗ {Aμ} and corresponding currents {charged-weak} ⊗ {neutral-weak} ⊗ {elec-
tromagnetic}.
The basic particle families in the SU4PM representation of the Standard Mod-
el are shown in the schematic Table 4 below.
For the hc-boson wavefunction we apply here the full Ritz-Galerkin series on
the function system
{ } {(
bfunc ( r , r0 , dr0 ) r k1 , k1 =
f k ( r ,θ ) = )
0, , nr × cos k2 θ ,cos k2 θ sin θ , k2 = }
0,, nθ
1
with coefficients α k , where bfunc ( r , r0 , dr0 ) = is a Fermi-step-
r − r0
1 + exp
dr0
function which limits the region r ≤ r0 of the preon with “smearing width” dr0.
( 1
)
= u iγ µ Dµ − m u − F a µν Fa µν ,
LQHCD
4
where u is the particle (lepton or quark) wave function defined above, and the
covariant derivative is Dµ =∂ µ − i g Ag a µ λa with SU(4) Gell-Mann 4 × 4 ma-
trices λa ( a = 1, ,15 ) and the field tensor is
∂ µ ( Ag a )ν − ∂ν ( Ag a ) µ + g f abc ( Agb ) µ ( Ag c )ν ,
Fa , µν =
The parameters of the component preons and the hc-bosons within a particle
are (see below):
par ( ui ) = { Eui , ai , rui ,θ ui , drui } , par ( Agi ) = { EAi , aAi } ,
where Eui and EAi are energies, ai and aAi are internal phases,
( rui ,θ ui , drui ) describe particle’s location and smear-out.
The calculation method of minimization of SU(4) action is shown below for
the electron in a schematic Table 4(a).
l [ix, j ]
= {{( t
i1 3 ) | ( i1, i 2, i 3 )
, ri 2 , ti= =
random ( lattice, j 1,= }
,100 )} | ix 1,,8 .
the tauon, for the electron the only hc-boson carries almost all of the energy.
The calculated and observed masses of the charged leptons are shown in Ta-
ble 5.
The energy of component preons and field bosons are shown in Figures 4-6.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 7.
The parameters of the three generations (flavors) are shown in Tables 6-8.
calc. 0.29 ± 0.23 MeV 228 ± 150 MeV 2.26 ± 0.7 GeV
Figure 7. Structure of charged leptons: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, uncertainty
dri and angle th.
arises from the fact, that all leptons consist of two r-preons, which differ only in
the hc-charge, so it is plausible that their geometric parameters are equal (equal
radius ri, its uncertainty dri, equal phase angle ai, and inter-preon-angle th = 0).
The lepton neutrinos are neutral, interact only weak via Z and W bosons.
As for mass, the best upper limit from cosmological data is m < 0.12 eV.
The calculated masses of the lepton neutrinos are shown in Table 9.
The energy of component preons and field bosons are shown in Figure 8.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 9.
The parameters of the three generations (flavors) are shown in Tables 10-12.
Figure 9. Structure of lepton neutrinos: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, uncer-
tainty dri and angle th.
rR − 0
Antiparticle right-chiral antineutrino u = 0,0, ,
0 rR +
Eexp < 0.12 eV Q = 0
Etot = 0.30 meV, ΔEtot = 0.038
mu-neutrino num = (rL−, rL+)
Eexp < 0.12 eV Q = 0
Etot = 11.0 meV, ΔEtot = 0.055
tau-neutrino nut = (rL−, rL+)
Eexp < 0.12 eV Q = 0
Etot = 98.0 meV, ΔEtot = 1.85.
Figure 10. Energy distribution of sterile neutrinos: first preons (u1, u2), then
bosons Ai.
Figure 11. Structure of sterile neutrinos: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, uncertainty
dri and angle th.
5.4. U-Quarks u, c, t
Spin S = 1/2, two free preons, occupying fixed positions in the hc-tetra-spinor
( rL + + qL + ) 2 ( rR + + qR + ) 2
Preon configuration: u = 0, ,0,
( rL + + qL + ) 2 ( rR + + qR + ) 2
Boson configuration: flavor = 1: ( A24 = λ11 ) , flavor = 2:
( A24 λ11=
= , A24 λ12
= , A13 λ=
4 , A13 λ5 )
flavor = 3: all 15 bosons
The U-quarks have the composition (r+, q+), and they are non-chiral, i.e. a
superposition of (rL+, qR+) and (rR+, qL+). They are non-symmetric in r and q,
so their internal structure is cylinder-symmetric or ring-symmetric, therefore
there are corrections to the standard gyromagnetic factor 2, like for the nucleons.
They carry the color charge, and do not appear separately, as the overall color
must be zero (white).
The calculated and observed masses of the U-quarks are shown in Table 17.
The energy of component preons and field bosons are shown in Figure 12.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 13.
The parameters of the three generations (flavors) are shown in Tables 18-20.
( rL − + qL − ) 2 ( rR − + qR − ) 2
Antiparticle u = ,0, ,0
( rL − + qL − ) 2 ( rR − + qR − ) 2
Figure 13. Structure of U-quarks: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, un-
certainty dri and angle th.
5.5. D-Quarks d, s, b
Spin S = 1/2, two free preons, occupying fixed positions in the hc-tetra-spinor
( rL − + qL + ) 2 ( rR − + qR + ) 2
Preon configuration: u = ,0, ,0
0 0
Boson configuration: flavor = 1: ( A13 = λ4 ) , flavor = 2:
=( 13 λ=
A 4 , A13 λ=
5 , A24 , A24 λ12 )
λ11=
flavor = 3: all 15 bosons
The D-quarks have the composition (r−, q+), and they are non-chiral, i.e. a
superposition of (rL−, qR+) and (rR−, qL+). They are non-symmetric in r and q,
so their internal structure is cylinder-symmetric or ring-symmetric, therefore
there are corrections to the standard gyromagnetic factor 2, like for the nucle-
ons.
Apparently, the breaking of spherical symmetry is caused by flavor-mixing, as
demonstrated in the dC-quark.
They carry the color charge, and do not appear separately, as the overall color
must be zero (white).
D-quark flavors intermix via the CKM-matrix, its angles can be calculated (see
dC-quark) by making a linear combination with variable CKM-angles, inserting
into the hc-Lagrangian and minimizing. The solution is the energetically optimal
CKM-mixture and yields the observed CKM-angles.
The calculated and observed masses of the D-quarks are shown in Table 21.
The energy of component preons and field bosons of the three flavors and
Cabibbo-mixed quark (d, s) are shown in Figure 14.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 15.
The parameters of the three of the three flavors and Cabibbo-mixed quark (d,
s) are shown in Tables 22-25.
down-quark d = (rL− + qR+)/ 2
( rL − + qL + ) 2 ( rR − + qR + ) 2
Preon configuration: u = ,0, ,0
0 0
0 0
Antiparticle u = 0, ,0,
( rL + + qL − ) 2 ( rR + + qR − ) 2
hc-boson: Ag 4 λ4
Eexp = 4.8 MeV Q = −1/3
Figure 15. Structure of D-quarks: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, uncertainty dri
and angle th.
Figure 17. Structure of weak massive bosons: preons (u1) radii ri,
uncertainty dri and angle th, the only preon is located approx-
imately at radius r ≈ 1 am.
Continued
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.42354,
0.63418,
0.928717,
0.946956,
1.1372,
1.30358,
1.4114,
4.21067 1.20844, 0.81355 0.654887
1.02434,
1.25918,
1.27045,
0.93689,
2.58041,
5.49091,
5.57065
4.03572,
4.18504, 16.4507, 0.00272481, 0.000633244,
4.14824 20.6083, 0.0000218384 0.0000799629
43.8355
Figure 19. Structure of strong neutrinos: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, un-
certainty dri and angle th.
Eexp = ? Q = 0
Etot = 23 MeV, ΔEtot = 13.5
qm-neutrino qnum = (qL−, qL+)
Eexp = ? Q = 0
Etot = 205 MeV, ΔEtot = 93
qt-neutrino qnut = (qL−, qL+)
Eexp = ? Q = 0
Etot = 2.40 GeV, ΔEtot = 1.48.
m (Zq) m (Hq)
exp.
calc. 644 GeV 637 GeV
Figure 21. Structure of strong bosons: preon (u1) radii ri, uncertainty dri
and angle th, the only preon is located approximately at radius r ≈ 1 am.
The masses of the 3 generations of the basic particles of the Standard Model
are given in Table 38 below, where the neutrino masses are taken from the
SU(4)-preon calculation above, the remaining values are measured.
Table 38. Masses of the 3 generations of the basic particles of the Standard Model.
m1 m2 m3
Nan Li [28] gives the assessment for k(ν): 0.50 < k(ν) < 0.85, which is roughly
in agreement with the above value for k(ν).
The Koide formula is approximately k≈1 for all basic particles, with a devia-
tion of about 20% for neutrinos and u-quark generations.
In the SU(4)-preon model, the generations are due to the 3 configuration of
hc-bosons (hcb) Ni = (1, 4, 15) which are compatible with the symmetry of SU(4)
(are invariant under an automorphism subgroup).
We make an ansatz for the mass-energy of generations ui:
M ( u=
i) Eui + mui N i aui , where Eui is the non-hcb energy contribution, mui is
the first-generation-energy, aui is the hcb-exponent, and Ni = (1, 4, 15) is the
number of hcb’s in a generation i.
Fitting the mass table with this ansatz gives
Eu1 = −28.18 Eu 2 = −139.84 Eu 3 = −550.62 Eu 4 = −61.19
mu1 = 5.06 mu2 = 10.79 mu3 = 19.16 mu4 = 6.99
au1 = 1.11 au2 = 1.20 au3 = 1.50 au4 = 1.34
The resulting exponents aui vary from au1 = 1.11 for neutrinos to au3 = 1.50 for
u-quark generations with a mean
E(aui) = 1.292 and standard deviation Std(aui) = 0.1720.
If we approximate the mass formula M ( ui ) = mui N i aui neglecting the non-
hcb energy Eui, then the scale factor cancels out, and the Koide function depends
only on the exponent aui of the family (ui).
We get the following approximate values k’ for the Koide value k of the 4 fam-
ilies:
=k (ν ) 0.8106,
= k ( e ) 0.9177,
= k ( u ) 1.242,
= k ( d ) 1.091
with the mean lifetime of τ = 881.5 ± 1.5 s and energy ΔE = 0.782343 MeV
In the SM it is described by the interaction of a virtual W-boson
n → p + W − → p + e− + ν e (14a)
d ( rR −, qL + ) → d ( rL −, qR + ) + Z L ( rR −, rR + ) + Z q ( qL −, qL + )
→ d ( rL −, qR + ) + ν e ( rR −, rR + ) + ν q ( qL −, qL + )
Both transitions take at least the energy ΔE = 23 MeV for the mass of ν q .
This transition can serve as an additional channel for the neutron decay:
n → n + ν e + ν e + ν q + ν q , which takes away ΔE = 2 × 23 MeV and makes fast
neutrons slow, making them undetectable by the usual scintillation method. This
would explain the “neutron lifetime puzzle”.
7. Conclusions
Formulation of the extended model
In the first three chapters we describe SU4PM, the extended SM.
The extension happens in four steps:
m1 m2 m3
neutrino (νe, νμ, ντ) 0.30 meV 11 meV 98 meV
electron (e, μ, τ) 0.511 MeV 106 MeV 1.78 GeV
u-quark (u, c, t) 2.3 MeV 1.34 GeV 171 GeV
d-quark (d, s, b ) 4.8 MeV 100 MeV 4.2 GeV
( )
2
2 m1 + m2 + m3
The Koide formula
= [28] k ( m1 , m2 , m3 ) ≈ 1 is ap-
3 m1 + m2 + m3
proximately valid for the generations (1, 2, 3) of basic particles. The precise values
are k(ν) = 0.8654, k(e) = 0.9998, k(u) = 1.2673, k(d) = 1.0891 for the four basic
families neutral leptons, charged leptons, u-quarks, d-quarks.
There is an approximate scaling law for the generation mass scale.
We make an ansatz for the mass-energy of generations ui:
M ( u=
i) Eui + mui N i aui , where Eui is the non-hcb energy contribution, mui is
the first-generation-energy, aui is the hcb-exponent, and Ni = (1, 4, 15) is the
number of hcb’s in a generation i.
Fitting the formula yields the exponents au1 = 1.11 au2 = 1.20 au3 = 1.50
au4 = 1.34 , so aui ≈ 1.3 .
We have the result: the approximate validity of the Koide formula k ≈ 1 for
the 4 families is the result of the power law of the generation mass hierarchy
with the exponent aui ≈ 1.3 approximately constant across the 4 families.
Calculated and observed masses of basic SM particles
Leptons and pure quarks
dC = Cabibbo-mixed d-quark
m (dC), α (C)
exp. 4.8 MeV, 13.04˚
calc. 4.74 MeV, 13.1˚
Structure characteristics
We have the following structure characteristics:
-charged leptons (e, μ, τ) are spherically symmetric, with increasing radii (0.25,
0.35, 0.5)
-neutral leptons (νe, νμ, ντ) are spherically symmetric, with roughly equal ra-
dius ≈ 1
-pure u-quarks (u, c, t) have double-peaked structure with increasing radii ((0,
0.3), (0.1, 0.3), (0.6, 0.6)), the first two are spherically symmetric, and only the
t-quark is slightly axial θ = (0, π/6)
-pure d-quarks (d, s, b) have double-peaked structure with increasing radii ((0,
0.3), (0, 0.3), (0.1, 0.5)), and are spherically symmetric
-Cabibbo-mixed d-quark dC has double-peaked structure (0.3, 0.8) and is
slightly axial θ = (0, π/8)
Consequences from the calculated structure
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this pa-
per.
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