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Calculation of the Standard Model Parameters and Particles Based on a SU(4) Preon Model

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2 views61 pages

Calculation of the Standard Model Parameters and Particles Based on a SU(4) Preon Model

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© © All Rights Reserved
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Journal of Modern Physics, 2024, 15, 64-124

https://www.scirp.org/journal/jmp
ISSN Online: 2153-120X
ISSN Print: 2153-1196

Calculation of the Standard Model Parameters


and Particles Based on a SU(4) Preon Model

Jan Helm

Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University, Berlin, Germany

How to cite this paper: Helm, J. (2024) Abstract


Calculation of the Standard Model Para-
meters and Particles Based on a SU(4) This paper describes an extension and a new foundation of the Standard
Preon Model. Journal of Modern Physics, Model of particle physics based on a SU(4)-force called hyper-color, and on
15, 64-124.
preon subparticles. The hyper-color force is a generalization of the SU(2)-
https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2024.151003
based weak interaction and the SU(1)-based right-chiral self-interaction, in
Received: December 5, 2023 which the W- and the Z-bosons are Yukawa residual-field-carriers of the hy-
Accepted: January 27, 2024 per-color force, in the same sense as the pions are the residual-field-carriers of
Published: January 30, 2024
the color SU(3) interaction. Using the method of numerical minimization of
Copyright © 2024 by author(s) and
the SU(4)-action based on this model, the masses and the inner structure of
Scientific Research Publishing Inc. leptons, quarks and weak bosons are calculated: the mass results are very
This work is licensed under the Creative close to the experimental values. We calculate also precisely the value of the
Commons Attribution International
Cabibbo angle, so the mixing matrices of the Standard model, CKM matrix
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
for quarks and PMNS matrix for neutrinos can also be calculated. In total, we
Open Access reduce the 29 parameters of the Standard Model to a total of 7 parameters.

Keywords
SU(4), Generalization of Weak Interaction, Extension of Standard Model,
Numerical Minimization of Action, Hyper-Color, Preon

1. Introduction
The Standard Model of Particle Physics (SM) formulated in its final form in
mid-seventies, is a very successful theory: in spite of repeated search for devia-
tion from observation, after 50 years there is not a single experimental result
contradicting it.
Still, it has several shortcomings, which make it hard to accept as a final
theory, so it is generally considered to be incomplete.
SM has the following problems [1] [2] [3] [4]:
▪ SM does not fully explain baryon asymmetry (observed imbalance of matter

DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2024.151003 Jan. 30, 2024 64 Journal of Modern Physics


J. Helm

and antimatter)
▪ SM does not explain the left-right-chiral asymmetry of the electro-weak
force (spontaneous symmetry breaking SU(2)LxSU(1)R)
▪ SM does not explain the CP violation in kaons, it has to be introduced as a
complex phase in the quark mixing Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix
▪ SM does not naturally incorporate neutrino oscillations and their non-zero
masses, the masses are introduced by hand, and neutrino oscillations are in-
serted by introducing the purely experimental Pontecorvo-Maki-Nakagawa-
Sakata (PMNS) matrix
▪ Pauli-SU(2) weak interaction is mediated by massive W- and Z-bosons,
which is hard to accept from the relativistic point-of-view: all fundamental inte-
ractions should propagate with maximum velocity c, like gravitation, electro-
magnetism, and color interaction. Furthermore, this has remarkable parallels to
the early interpretations of color interaction as a Yukawa force mediated by
massive pions.
▪ SM does not contain any candidates for the dark matter particle required by
observational cosmology
▪ SM has no explanation for the observed three generations of quarks and
leptons
▪ SM has 29 parameters, which makes hard to accept as a complete theory
A starting point for an extended formulation of SM appears to be the fifth
problem in the above list: Pauli-SU(2) weak interaction.
A plausible solution of the problem is the introduction of a SU(4) interaction
with four charges and fifteen massless field bosons in analogy to the concept of
the SU(3) color interaction with three charges (colors r g b), eight massless
field-bosons (gluons) and eightfold symmetry introduced by Gell-Mann, Fritsch
and Leutwyler in 1973.
SU(4) interaction, in the following called hypercolor, in analogy to the color
interaction, yields a renormalizable quantum gauge field theory, with confine-
ment and asymptotic freedom.
Pauli-SU(2) weak interaction becomes then the Yukawa weak force of the
SU(4)-hypercolor interaction, and the mass of the Yukawa-bosons W and Z
(~90 GeV) give the critical energy= ( Ehc 2=m ( Z ) 180 GeV ) in analogy to the
Callan-Symanzik color critical energy Ecol = 220 MeV .
So in reality the extended weak hypercolor force is roughly 1000 times
stronger than the color force.
A plausible formulation of the four charges is hc = (L−, L+, R−, R+), where (+,
−) is the electric charge, and (L, R) is the (left, right) chirality. The chirality χ is a
fundamental invariant for spinors (left-chiral and right-chiral Weyl-spinors are
components of a Dirac-bispinor).
This hc-charge definition is the only possible, because it has to encompass the
electric charge (because of the electro-weak interaction) and chirality (because of
the chiral asymmetry in SM).

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J. Helm

With this hc-charge definition, there is a spontaneous symmetry breaking of


the SU(4)-hc-interaction SU ( 4 )= SU ( 2 )L ⊗ SU (1) ⊗ SU (1)em
A remaining task is to find a sub-structure (preons), which unifies the basic
components of SM: the 6 leptons and the 6 quarks. The simplest ansatz is intro-
ducing preons r and q with hc-charges, plus color-charge for q, with the para-
meters:
wave function Ψ =( u L − , u L + , u R − , u R + )
r-preons ( rL − , rL + , rR − , rR + ) , Q ( r ) = −1 2 , m ( r )  1 meV ,
q-preons ( qL − , qL + , qR − , qR + ) , Q ( q ) = +1 6 , m ( q ) ~ 1 MeV , Qcol ( q ) = ( r , g , b )
At first, such an ansatz based purely on symmetry aspects, seems risky to say
the least.
Substructure ansatzes based on preons were proposed before (e.g. Harari [5]),
and ended in speculations without concrete results.
Here enters the third component of a successful SM-extension: a new power-
ful and numerically relatively simple calculation method: direct minimization of
action [6] [7]. This calculation method was introduced in [4] [7] and applied
successfully in QCD for calculation of hadrons.
With these three ansatzes it is possible, as shown in the rest of this paper:
▪ to calculate numerically the mass hierarchy spectrum of the basic leptons
and quarks in SM
▪ to explain naturally the huge differences of scale in energy-mass in SM, in
particular the minuscule neutrino masses
▪ to explain naturally the three generations (simply by symmetry-compatible
hc-boson configurations)
▪ to calculate in principle the mixing matrices CKM for quarks and PMNS for
neutrinos (which explains also the neutrino oscillations)
▪ to reduce the number of parameters in SM from 29 to 7 parameters
Furthermore, reproducing by pure numeric calculation correctly the ener-
gy-mass spectrum of SM is as good as a direct experimental verification for
proving the observational correctness of the extended SU(4)-preon-model
(SU4PM).
Taken all this into account, it appears extremely lucky that such an ad-hoc
model proved to be so successful both theoretically and experimentally. On the
other hand, it is another example of the extreme importance and fundamental
significance of symmetry aspects in physics.
In the following, we introduce in chap.2 the SU(4) gauge theory with 15 gene-
ralized Gell-Mann 4 × 4-matices as generators of the SU(4) Lie group.
In chap.3 we extend the SM to SU4PM by the introduction of the SU(4)-
hypercolor interaction, and the two preons (r, q) as sub-particles of leptons and
quarks.
In chap.4 the ansatz for wavefunctions, and the numerical algorithm are de-
scribed.
In chap.5 we present the calculation results for energy-mass of the SM: the six
leptons, the six quarks, and the interaction bosons W, Z, H (higgs), and some

DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2024.151003 66 Journal of Modern Physics


J. Helm

weakly interacting new particles, which arise from the ansatz.


In chap.6 we discuss some selected weak hadron decays.

2. SU(4) Gauge Theory


2.1. Gauge Theory
In the following, we consider the gauge theory QCD (quantum chromodynamics)
based on SU(3) and the gauge theory QHCD (quantum hyper-color dynamics)
based on SU(4) [8] [9].
The gauge invariant QCD Lagrangian is ( = c= 1 )

( 1
)
L ψ iγ µ Dµ − m ψ − F a µν Fa µν
=
4
(1)

where ψ i ( x ) is the quark field, a dynamical function of spacetime, in the fun-


damental representation of the SU(3) gauge group, indexed by i j; Aa µ ( x ) are
the fields, also dynamical functions of spacetime, in the adjoint representation of
the SU(3) or the SU(4) gauge group, indexed by a, b, … The γμ are Dirac matric-
es connecting the spinor representation to the vector representation of the Lo-
rentz group.
The total field is Aa µ ( x ) ≡ Aa µ ( x ) λa and the Dirac-conjugate
ψ i ( x ) = ψ i c ( x ) γ 0 , where ψ i c is the complex-conjugate.
Dμ is the gauge covariant derivative for calculation
Dµ ≡ ∂ µ − i g A aµ λa (2)

for simplicity, instead of Dµ ≡ ∂ µ − i g Aa µ T a , with rescaled field A aµ ≡ Aa µ 2 ,


and where g is the coupling constant and T a = λa 2 are the generators of the
gauge group/algebra.
For the QCD based on SU(3) ([10] [11] [12] [13]), Aµ a ( x ) is the (color)
gluon gauge field, for eight different gluons a = 1, ,8 , ψ(x) is a four-component
Dirac spinor, and λa is one of the eight Gell-Mann matrices,
a = 1, ,8
0 1 0  0 −i 0  1 0 0
λ1 =  1 0 0  λ2 =  i 
0 0 = λ3  0 −1 0  (3)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
     
0 0 1  0 0 −i 
λ4 =  0 0 0  λ5 =  0 0 0 
 
  i 0 0 
1 0 0  
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
λ6 =  0 0 1=
   1  
 λ7  0 0 −i  λ8 = 3  0 1 0
     
0 1 0 0 i 0  0 0 −2 
These matrices are traceless Tr ( λa ) = 0 , Hermitian, and obey the extra trace
orthonormality relation
Tr ( λa λb ) = 2δ ab

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J. Helm

and commutation relations

[λa , λb ] = 2i f abc λc , f abc = 2 f abc (4)

For the QHCD based on SU(4) Aµ a ( x ) is the hc-boson field, for 15 hc-bosons
and λa are the 15 generators of the SU(4), a = 1, ,15 , the hc-matrices [14] [15]
(in analogy to the 8 Gell-Mann matrices for the SU(3)):
0 1 0 0  0 −i 0 0 1 0 0 0
     
1 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0
λ1 =  λ2 =  λ3 =  (5)
0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0
     
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 −i 0 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
λ4 =  λ5 = 
1 0 0 0 i 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0
     
0 0 1 0 0 0 −i 0 1 0 1 0 0
λ6 =  λ7 =  λ8 =
0 1 0 0 0 i 0 0 3 0 0 −2 0 
     
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −i 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
λ9 =  λ10 = 
0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0
   
1 0 0 0 i 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −i 
λ11 =  λ12 = 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
   
0 1 0 0 0 i 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
     
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
λ13 =  λ14 =  λ15 =
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 −i  6 0 0 1 0
     
0 0 1 0 0 0 i 0  0 0 0 −3 

The symbol F a µν the gauge invariant field strength tensor, analogous to the
electromagnetic field strength tensor, F µν , in quantum electrodynamics. It is
given by
F a µν =
∂ µ Aaν − ∂ν Aa µ + g f abc Ab µ Acν ,

∂ µ Aνa − ∂ν A aµ + g f abc A bµ Aνc


rescaled F a µν =
where f abc resp. f abc are the structure constants of SU(3) or SU(4).
the generators T a = λa 2 satisfy the commutator relations
T a , T b  = i f abcT c , rescaled [ λa , λb ] = i f abc λc
General Yang-Mills theory
Yang-Mills theories are a special example of gauge theory with a non-commu-

DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2024.151003 68 Journal of Modern Physics


J. Helm

tative symmetry group given by the Lagrangian [3]


1
Lgf = − F aµν F a µν (6)
4
with the generators of the Lie algebra, indexed by a, corresponding to the
F-quantities (the curvature or field-strength form) satisfying

( 1
)
Tr T aT b = δ ab T a , T b  = i f abcT c ,
2
where for SU(3) and SU(4) T a = λa 2 , and where the fabc are structure constants
of the Lie algebra, and the covariant derivative defined as
D ≡ ∂ − i g Aa T resp. D ≡ ∂ − i g A a λ , where Aa is the field carrier,
µ µ µ a µ µ µ a µ
A aµ ≡ Aa µ 2 is the rescaled field, and g is the coupling constant, and for a SU(N)
group one has N2 − 1 generators.
The relation for the field tensor
F a µν =
∂ µ Aaν − ∂ν Aa µ + g f abc Ab µ Acν

∂ µ Aνa − ∂ν A aµ + g f abc A bµ Aνc


F a µν =

follows from the commutator for the covariant derivative Dµ


 Dµ , Dν  = −i g Ta F a µν

The field has the property of being self-interacting and equations of motion
that one obtains are said to be semilinear, as nonlinearities are both with and
without derivatives. This means that one can manage this theory only by per-
turbation theory, with small nonlinearities.
From the given Lagrangian one can derive the equations of motion given by
∂ µ F a µν + g f abc Abµ F c µν =
0 (Yang-Mills-equations), (7)

resp. ∂ µ F a µν + g f abc A bµ F c µν =
0

which correspond to the Maxwell equations in electrodynamics ∂ µ F a µν =


0,
where f abc = 0
Putting Fµν = T a F a µν , these can be rewritten as

(D )
µ a
Fµν =0

The Bianchi identity holds

( Dµ Fνκ ) + ( Dκ Fµν ) + ( Dν Fκµ )


a a a
=
0

which is equivalent to the Jacobi identity


 Dµ , [ Dν , Dκ ] +  Dκ ,  Dµ , Dν   +  Dν ,  Dκ , Dµ   =
0 for Lie-groups

since  Dµ , F aνκ  = Dµ F aνκ .


1
Define the dual strength tensor F µν ≡ ε µνρσ Fρσ , then the Bianchi identity
2
can be rewritten as

DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2024.151003 69 Journal of Modern Physics


J. Helm

Dµ F µν = 0

A source current J aν enters into the equations of motion (eom) as


∂ µ F a µν + g f abc Abµ F c µν =
− J aν

The Dirac part of the Lagrangian is


=LD ψ i  Dµ γ µ − mc ψ ( )
with the resulting eom = gauge Dirac equation
(i  D γ µ
µ
)
− mc ψ =
0

2.2. The Running Coupling Constant of the QCD


We introduce the qq-potential (Cornell potential)
4 α c σ R
V ( R, β ) ≈ V0 − + potential = qq , σ ≈ 440 MeV
3 R c
its measured values are shown below.
R0 is the characteristic scale R0 ≈ 0.49 fm , the scaling β-function is defined
below.
Measured values of for different values of β are shown in Figure 1.
The data at β = 6.0, 6.2, 6.4 and 6.8 has been scaled by R0, and normalized
such that V(R0) = 0. The collapse of the different sets of data on to a single curve
after the rescaling by R0 is evidence for scaling. The linear rise at large rR implies
confinement [16] [17].
The color confinement results from lim (V ( R ) , R → ∞ ) = ∞ .

2.3. Callan-Symanzik Equation


The Callan-Symanzik equation describes the behavior of the transfer function of
a Feynman diagram with n momentums [3]
G(
n)
( x1 , x2 ,, xn ; m, M , g ) ,
where M = renormalization (cut-off) energy, g = coupling constant. φ = field
strength, m = energy, with original and renormalized field φ = Zφ0 , transfer
function G ( ) = Z n 2G0( ) , under scaling transformation
n n

g → g +δ g M → M + δ M φ =→
Zφ0 (1 + δη )φ
Z ′φ0 M =
G ( ) → (1 + nδη ) G (
n n)

From the cut-off independence



G0( ) = 0
n

∂M
we get the Callan-Symanzik equation
 ∂ ∂ ∂  (n)
M + β ( g ) + nγ + mγ m  G ( x1 , x2 , , xn ; m, M , g ) =
0,
 ∂M ∂g ∂m 
∂η ∂g M ∂η
where γ = − M β =M γm =
∂M ∂M m ∂M

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J. Helm

Figure 1. The static qq-potential in the quenched approxi-


mation obtained by the Wuppertal collaboration [16].

From the definition we get a differential equation for g(M)


∂g
M + β (g) =
0 (8)
∂M
The running coupling for QCD is characterized by the β-function with colors
N = 3, flavors nf = 3, M = cut-off energy [16]
∂g
M
∂M
−β ( g ) =
= (
− β 0 g 3 + β1 g 5 +  )
1  11 2 
=β0 2 
N − nf 
16π  3 3 
 34 2 10 
( )
1 nf
=β1  N − Nn f − N 2 −1 
(16π ) 2 2
 3 3 N 

g2 (M )
g 2 ( m) =
 m2 
resulting in first order in 1 + g 2 ( M ) β 0 log  2 
M 
Which becomes for
1
m → ∞ g ( m) = (9a)
m
2 β 0 log  
M 
g 2 ( m) 1 12π
s ( m)
α= = = (9b)
4π m  2
8πβ 0 log  
Λ
(11N − 2n f ) log  mΛ 2 
 
αs = coupling constant
where
M = Λ ≈ 220 MeV critical energy of QCD, Λ ≈ m(pion)2 = 280 MeV
nf = 3: number of quark flavours

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J. Helm

The corresponding critical length of QCD


c 1.96 ∗ 10−7 eV ⋅ m
r= = = 0.89 ∗ 10−15 m
Λ
0c
220 MeV

which is about the proton radius.


For energies m ≈ Λ we have the exact formula

3
g c ( m ) = 4π
2
  m 
2 (11N − 2n f )  log  Λ   + cGE 0
2

  
1
= 4π
2
  m 
18  log    + cGE 0 2
  Λ 

1
for the numerical calculation we
= set cGE 0 = 0.683 , which is con-
 m( p) 
log 
 Λ QCD 
 
sistent with the Callan-Symanzik relation for m > 2Λ , as shown in the plot
Figure 2 below.

2.4. The Running Coupling Constant of the QHCD


For the QHCD the Callan-Symanzik equation is still valid, as it is derived from
the scale-independence of the theory.
The running coupling for QHCD with colors N = 4, flavors nf = 3, Λ = trans-
fer energy becomes in analogy to (9b)
g 2 ( m) 12π
hc ( m )
α= = (10a)
4π  2 
(11N − 2n f ) log  Λm 2 
 hc 
Again, it must be corrected to avoid a singularity for
m = Λ hc (10b)

3
g hc ( m ) = 4π
2
  m 
2 (11N − 2n f )  log    + cGE1
2

  Λ hc 
3
= 4π
2
  m 
76  log    + cGE1
2

  Λ hc 

1
we set = ( Z 0 ) 180 GeV in analogy to the QCD, and cGE1 =
Λ hc 2m = ,
 m (t ) 
log  
 m(d ) 
with the masses of the top- and the d-quark: this should assess the logarithmic
scale of the generation energy ratio.

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J. Helm

Figure 2. gc (m), m in E0-units, E0 = 196 MeV [18].

Both settings are of course only a plausible guess, but these values work very
well for the preon model, as we will see.
The coupling constant g hc for the QHCD is shown in the plot Figure 3 be-
low.
The peak is much higher than in QCD, which reflects the enormous span of
the mass scale in the Standard Model.
The corresponding critical length of QHCD
c 1.96 ∗ 10−7 eV ⋅ m
r= = = 1.08 ∗ 10−18 m
Λ hc
0 hc
180 GeV

which is about 1/1000 of the proton radius: the energy scale of the QHCD is by a
factor 1000 larger, and consequently the length scale by a factor 1000 smaller
than in QCD. This agrees with the experimental assessment of the quark radius
being about 1/1000 of the proton radius.

3. The Standard Model and QCD, the SU(4)-Preon Model and


QHCD
The Standard Model of particle physics (SM) emerged in the mid 1970s as the
universal theory of high-energy physics encompassing the electromagnetic, weak
Pauli and strong color interactions, and based on a particle model with 6 basic
lepton and 6 basic quark spinors in 3 generations (=flavors), plus field carrier
bosons: 1 photon, 8 color gluons, 2 weak Pauli massive W-Z bosons, and scalar
higgs H ([2] [3] [14] [20] [21] [22]).
The interactions of SM are described by SU(n) gauge theories: trivial SU(1)
electromagnetic, SU(2) weak Pauli interaction, and SU(3) strong color interac-
tion. The gauge charges are: n = 1 electromagnetic charge q, n = 2 the weak isos-
pin I3 = ±1, n = 3 the color c = (r, g, b).
The quarks form composite particles known as hadrons, among them the
nucleons (p, n) which build the atomic nuclei, the leptons do not form compo-
site particles.

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Figure 3. ghc (m), m in E0-units, E0 = 196 GeV [19].

The weak Pauli interaction breaks the chiral symmetry and becomes
SU(2)LxSU(1)R gauge interaction.
It combines via the Glashow-Weinberg mechanism with the electromagnetic
interaction to become electroweak interaction SU(2)L(W)xSU(1)(Z) xSU(1)(γ)
with W-boson, Z-boson, photon.
Finally, the masses of the basic particles are generated via the Higgs mechan-
ism through SU(n) symmetry breaking by the higgs H particle.
Based on this scaffold, the SM developped into a powerful theory, which de-
scribes all of particle physics correctly with no deviation from experiment until
present.

3.1. Parameters of the Standard Model


Basic particles of the standard model [22]
The properties of the basic particles of the Standard Model are shown in Ta-
ble 1 below.
The quark radius: as of 2014, experimental evidence indicates they are no big-
ger than 10−4 times the size of a proton, i.e. less than 10−19 metres [23].
Field bosons
The following Table 2 describes the basic bosons of the SM: 3 massive bosons
W±, Z, H and 2 massless field-carriers: photon γ and gluon g.
Parameters Standard Model
The model has 28 parameters + fine-structure constant α em [2] [21], as de-
scribed in Table 3 below.

3.2. The Basics of the Preon Model


The preon model describes the basic particles of the Standard Model (leptons,
quarks and exchange bosons) as composed of smaller particles (preons), which
obey a super-strong hyper-color interaction.
Examples are the rishon model (Harari 1979 [5] [24]) and the primon model
(de Souza 2002 [25]).

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Table 1. Basic particles of the Standard Model.

Generation 1

Fermion Electric Weak Weak Color


Symbol Mass
left-handed charge isospin hyper-charge charge

electron e− −1 −1/2 −1 1 511 keV


positron e+ +1 0 2 1 511 keV
e-neutrino νe 0 +1/2 −1 1 <0.22 eV
e-antineutrino νe 0 0 0 1 <0.22 eV
up-quark u +2/3 +1/2 +1/3 3 2.3 MeV
up-antiquark u −2/3 0 −4/3 3 2.3 MeV
down-quark d −1/3 −1/2 +1/3 3 4.8 MeV
down-antiquark d +1/3 0 −2/3 3 4.8 MeV
Generation 2
muon µ− −1 −1/2 −1 1 105.6 MeV
antimuon µ +
+1 0 2 1 105.6 MeV
mu-neutrino νµ 0 +1/2 −1 1 <0.22 eV
mu-antineutrino νµ 0 0 0 1 <0.22 eV
charm-quark c +2/3 +1/2 +1/3 3 1275 MeV
charm-antiquark c −2/3 0 −4/3 3 1275 MeV
strange-quark s −1/3 −1/2 +1/3 3 95 MeV
strange-antiquark s +1/3 0 −2/3 3 95 MeV
Generation 3
tau τ −
−1 −1/2 −1 1 1776.8 MeV
antitau τ+ +1 0 2 1 1776.8 MeV
tau-neutrino ντ 0 +1/2 −1 1 <0.22 eV
tau-antineutrino ντ 0 0 0 1 <0.22 eV
top-quark t +2/3 +1/2 +1/3 3 173,210 MeV
top-antiquark t −2/3 0 −4/3 3 173,210 MeV
bottom-quark b −1/3 −1/2 +1/3 3 4180 MeV
bottom-antiquark b +1/3 0 −2/3 3 4180 MeV

Table 2. Field bosons of the Standard Model.

Particle Charge w.Isospin T w.hcharge Y Spin Color Lifetime Mass


W± ±1 ±1 0 1 0 3 × 10 −25
s 80.4 GeV
Z 0 0 0 1 0 3 × 10 −25
s 91.2 GeV
γ photon 0 0 0 1 0 0
g gluon 0 0 0 1 3 0
H higgs 0 0 0 0 0 10 −22
s 125.1 GeV

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Table 3. Parameters of the Standard Model [16], where electromagnetic fine-structure


e0 2 1
constant α= = .
4π 137
em

Parameters of the Standard Model


Renormalization
Symbol Description Value
scheme (point)
me Electron mass 511 keV
mμ Muon mass 105.7 MeV
mτ Tau mass 1.78 GeV
mu Up quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 1.9 MeV
md Down quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 4.4 MeV
ms Strange quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 87 MeV
mc Charm quark mass μMS = mc 1.32 GeV
mb Bottom quark mass μMS = mb 4.24 GeV
mt Top quark mass On-shell scheme 172.7 GeV
θ12 CKM 12-mixing angle q flavor mixing 13.1˚
θ23 CKM 23-mixing angle 2.4˚
θ13 CKM 13-mixing angle 0.2˚
δ13 CKM CP-violating Phase 0.995
θ12 PMNS 12-mixing angle ν flavor mixing 33.6˚ ± 0.8˚
θ23 PMNS 23-mixing angle 47.2˚ ± 4˚
θ13 PMNS 13-mixing angle 8.5˚ ± 0.15˚
δ13 PMNS CP-violating Phase 4.1 ± 0.75
g1 or g' U (1) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 0.357
g2 or g SU (2) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 0.652
g3 or gs SU (3) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 1.221
Λ crit. energy in SU (3) 220 MeV
cgE0 additional log in col-coupling 0.69
θQCD QCD vacuum angle ~0
v Higgs vacuum expectation value 246 GeV
mH Higgs mass 125.36 ± 0.41 GeV
mνe electron neutrino mass ≤0.12 eV
mνμ mu neutrino mass ≤0.12 eV
mντ tau neutrino mass ≤0.12 eV
α em fine-structure constant 1/137

The rishon model


In the rishon model, there are two preons (called rishons) T (charge +1/3e)
and V (charge 0). Leptons and quarks and exchange bosons are built of 3 rishons.
They obey a hc-interaction based on SU(3), the 3-rishon combinations have the

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(color)x(hyper-color) representation SU(3)cxSU(3)hc


TTT = antielectron
VVV= electron neutrino
TTV, TVT, VTT = three colours of up quarks
TVV, VTV, VVT = three colours of down antiquarks
TTT = electron
VVV = electron antineutrino
TTV , TVT , VTT = three colours of up antiquarks
TVV , VTV , VVT = three colours of down quarks
W+ boson = TTTVVV
Generations are explained as excited states of the first generations, mass is not
explained.
The primon model
In the primon model there are four preons (called primons) (p1, p2, p3, p4),
which carry charge (+5/6, −1/6, −1/6, −1/6) and hc-charge, they obey a
hc-interaction based on SU(2).
Quarks are built of two primons:
u (p1, p2), c (p1, p3), t (p1, p4), d (p2, p3), s (p2, p4), b (p3, p4), leptons are
non-composite, there are 3 non-composite Higgs-bosons.
Generations are explained as primon-configuration, the mass spectrum is only
qualitatively explained
Requirements for the preon model
The two basic ideas of the preon model (PM) are
-the basic particles of the Standard Model (SM) are composed of a few fun-
damental fermions
-there is a super-strong hyper-color interaction, with massless field bosons
A successful PM should uphold the symmetries and invariances of the SM and
solve its main problems:
-PM should encompass the preservation of the baryon and lepton number
-PM should explain and derive the generations (flavor) of the SM and their
energy scales
-PM should explain the allowed and not-allowed decay modes and the fla-
vor-mixing of the SM
-PM should correctly calculate the mass spectrum, and explain the huge dif-
ference in mass scale between leptons and quarks, and between the generations:
m(neutrino νe)~10−4 eV, m(top quark t) = 170 GeV, which makes a factor of
1015
-PM should describe the weak exchange bosons W, Z, and the higgs H as Yu-
kawa-bosons of the hc-interaction,
as all other fundamental field bosons graviton Aμν, photon Aμ, gluon Acμ are
massless waves; the field bosons Ahcμ of hc should be also massless
-hc interaction should be stronger the SU(3)-color interaction and should en-
compass the weak SU(2), also it should reproduce the spontaneous symmetry
breaking of the electroweak symmetry group

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SU(2)L,ch-weak ⊗ SU(1)n-weak ⊗ SU(1)em with their exchange bosons {Wμ} ⊗ {Zμ}


⊗ {Aμ} and corresponding currents {charged-weak} ⊗ {neutral-weak} ⊗ {elec-
tromagnetic}.
-PM should reduce the 28 parameters of the SM to very few fundamental pa-
rameters.

3.3. Realization of the SU(4) Preon Model


The SU(4) preon model (SU4PM) is based essentially on two assumptions
-The SU4PM postulates two basic Weyl-spinors {r, q} as the fundamental par-
ticles and the SU(4) as the gauge group of the hc-interaction, with spin S = 1/2,
with electrical charge Qe = {−1/2, 1/6} and color charge Qc = {0, 1}
-The field-bosons are the 15 generators Ahcμ of the SU(4), described by the 15
standard generator 4 × 4 matrices λi of the SU(4). The SU(4) has 4 hc-charges:
{chirality L, chirality R, electrical charge +, electrical charge - } in analogy to the
3 color charges of the SU(3): {r, g, b}.
From these assumptions follow the basic particle families of
-leptons L = r ⊗ r being a hc-tetra-spinor of a doublet of two r-preons, fer-
mions with total spin S = 1/2
-quarks Q = r ⊗ q being a hc-tetra-spinor of a doublet of an r- and a q-preon,
colored fermions with color Qc = 1 with total spin S = 1/2
-(hypothetical) strong neutrinos Nc = q ⊗ q being a hc-tetra-spinor of a doub-
let of two q-preons, colored fermions with color Qc = 0 with total spin S = 1/2
-weak bosons Bw = r ± r being a linear combinations of two or more r-preons,
with total spin S = 0 (scalar like higgs H) or S = 1 (vector like W and Z)
-(hypothetical) strong bosons Bc = q ± q being a linear combinations of two or
more q-preons, with color Qc = 0 and total spin S = 0 (scalar like higgs Hq) or S =
1 (vector like Zq)
A a hc-tetra-spinor is a hc-quadruplet with the hc-charges {L−, L+, R−, R+}.
Both preons can carry all four charges of SU(4), i.e. there are {rL−, rL+, rR−,
rR+} and {qL−, qL+, qR−, qR+}, where the spinor-anti-spinor pairs are {rL−,
rR+} and {rL+, rR−}.
The r-q-doublets, i.e. the quarks, have one more degree of freedom, as they
consist of different fermions, and are therefore chiral-neutral, which is energeti-
cally more favorable.
A hc-doublet occupies two positions in a hc-tetra-spinor with indices (i, j), e.g
the e-neutrino with the configuration {rL−, rL+, 0, 0} has the hc-indices (1, 2 ) ,
the bar over 2 signifies the anti-spinor.
One can show, that for two hc-indices {i, j} there are three field-boson confi-
gurations, which are compatible with the SU(4) symmetry: one boson Ai j (cor-
~
responding to the non-diagonal hc-matrix λi j interchanging i with j, e.g. for
( i, j ) = (1, 2 ) λi j = λ1 ), four bosons Ai j , Ai j , Ak l , Ak l (interchanging resp.
( i, j ) , ( i, j ) , and the dual index pairs ( k , l ) , ( k , l ) ), and all 15 bosons as the
third configuration. These correspond to the three generations (flavors) of the

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SM, as the calculation shows.


Basic parameters of SU4PM
We have 6 parameters for SU4PM: 2 preon masses, and hyper-color/SU4 in-
teraction the critical energy Λ hc and the peak height constant cGE1 . Further-
more, we still have the corresponding 2 parameters of the color/SU3 interaction:
the critical energy Λ c and the peak height constant cGE 0 .
The 4 interaction parameters have been derived in chap. 2.
For the mass of the r-preon, we make a guess of m(e-neutrino)/3: in the ligh-
test lepton, the e-neutrino, there are two r-preons and one hc-boson, so m(r)
will be approximately 1/3 of the assessed m(e-neutrino): this is assumed to be
1/1000 (1000 = approximate factor for flavor 3) of the best upper limit for m
(tau-neutrino) = 0.1 eV.
For the mass of the q-preon, we take 1/3 of mass(u-quark) the lightest quark,
in analogy to the r-preon.
preon data
r-preons {rL−, rL+, rR−, rR+}
Q(r) = −1/2, m(r) = 0.033 meV
q−preons {qL−, qL+, qR−, qR+}
Q(q) = +1/6, m(q) = 0.77 MeV
coupling constant of hc-interaction
The coupling from the Callan-Symanzik equation must be corrected to avoid
a singularity for µ = Λ hc
3
g hc ( m ) = 4π (11)
2
  m 
76  log    + cGE1
2

  Λ hc 
we set = ( Z 0 ) 180 GeV in analogy to the QCD, and
Λ hc 2m =
1
=cGE1 = 0.095
 m (t ) 
log  
 m(d ) 
The configuration of the SM in the SU4PM
Every basic particle of the SM is assigned a preon and a hc-boson configura-
tion.
The preon configuration of a fermion (leptons and quarks) occupies two of
the 4 positions in a hc-quadruplet by a Dirac-bispinor, e.g. for electron with in-
 rL −   rR − 
dex pair (1, 3) we have   in position 1 and   in position 3, ac-
 0   0 
cording to the hc-charge. The hc-quadruplet has the hc-charges (L−, L+, R−,
R+).
There are 3 possible hc-boson configurations for an index-pair (i, j), which are
consistent with the SU(4)-symmetry: 1 hc-boson Aij corresponding to first gen-
eration of flavor = 1, 4 hc-bosons Aij + Aij + Akl + Akl corresponding to flavor
= 2 (the bar specifies the conjugate coupler, and (k, l) is the complementary in-

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dex pair, e.g. for electron it is (2, 4)), and finally all 15 hc-bosons corresponding
to flavor = 3.
The fermions (leptons and quarks) have two independent preon-components
u1 and u2, they form a bispinor with spin S = 1/2.
The bosons (weak boson W, Z, H) have only one independent preon-component
u1, which is a linear combination of two preons, the spins add up to S = 1 for W
and Z, or to S = 0 for H, e.g. for Z = Z0 u= 1 ( ( rL − ) + ( rR − ) ) 2 and
  u1  0   u1  0  
Z 0 =    ,   ,   ,    2 . The weak bosons W and Z0 are carrier of the
  0   u1  0   u1 
residual weak interaction, and the higgs H generates masses for all r-containing
particles: leptons, quarks, weak bosons and the r-preon itself.
The SU4PM predicts the existence of hypothetical strong neutrinos, which
consist of qq with electrical charge Q = 0 and color charge Qc = 0. They are
heavy (m(qnu) = 23.2 MeV) practically non-interacting particles: the interact
only via very heavy q-boson Zq (m(Zq) = 644 GeV)), i.e. they interact only at
high resonance energies with small cross-sections. There is a new hypothetical
model for Dark Matter called SIMP with mass around 100 MeV and interacting
strongly at high resonance energies [26]. The strong-neutrinos do fit into this
category.
Furthermore, the SU4PM predicts the existence of strong bosons Zq and Hq,
in analogy to weak bosons Z0 and H, built of q-preons instead of r-preons. the
strong neutrinos interact with themselves via Zq, and Hq generates masses for
strong neutrinos and the q-preon.
The decay of neutron and pion requires (to safeguard the conservation of
hc-charge) the existence of further weak neutrinos: the non-chiral (sterile) neu-
trinos with masses similar to lepton neutrinos. The nc-neutrinos are neutral,
non-chiral, and interact with themselves and lepton neutrinos via the weak
ZL-boson similar to the Z0, but left-chiral.
The SU4PM SU(4) symmetry is spontaneously broken into the electroweak
symmetry group
SU(2)L,ch-weak ⊗ SU(1)n-weak ⊗ SU(1)em with their exchange bosons {Wμ} ⊗ {Zμ}
⊗ {Aμ} and corresponding currents {charged-weak} ⊗ {neutral-weak} ⊗ {elec-
tromagnetic}.
The basic particle families in the SU4PM representation of the Standard Mod-
el are shown in the schematic Table 4 below.

4. The Calculation Method of the SU(4)-Preon Model


We apply for the calculation of the parameters of SM particles the numerical
minimization of action, using a Ritz.Galerkin expansion for the hc-bosons and a
parameterized gaussian for the preons.

4.1. The Ansatz for the Wavefunction


Hc-boson wavefunction

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Table 4. Particle configurations in the SU4PM representation of the Standard Model.

For the hc-boson wavefunction we apply here the full Ritz-Galerkin series on
the function system

{ } {(
bfunc ( r , r0 , dr0 ) r k1 , k1 =
f k ( r ,θ ) = )
0, , nr × cos k2 θ ,cos k2 θ sin θ , k2 = }
0,, nθ

1
with coefficients α k , where bfunc ( r , r0 , dr0 ) = is a Fermi-step-
 r − r0 
1 + exp  
 dr0 

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function which limits the region r ≤ r0 of the preon with “smearing width” dr0.

 Agi1 ( t , r ,θ ) cos aAi  


  
 Agi 2 ( t , r ,θ ) cos aAi  
=Agi ( t , r ,θ ) =
  , i 1, ,15 (12)
 Agi1 ( t , r ,θ ) sin aAi  
 Ag t , r ,θ sin aA  
 i 2 ( ) i  
where aAi is the phase angle between the particle and the anti-particle part of
the hc-boson, and with the Ritz-Galerkin-expansion
Ag kl ( t , r ,θ ) =∑ α [ k , l , j ] f j ( r ,θ ) exp ( −i t EAk ) , k =1, ,15; l =1, 2
j

with energies EAk


Because of hc-symmetry, the active (non-zero) hc-bosons are
Ag = { Ag1 , , Ag15 } all hc-bosons: generation 3, flavor = 3
Ag = { Agij , Agij , Ag kl , Ag kl } 4 hc-bosons: coupler and anti-coupler for
hc-indices (i, j) and the corresponding 2 coupler-anti-coupler pair for the com-
plementary indices (k, l): generation 2, flavor = 2
Ag = { Agij } one hc-boson for the hc-indices (i, j): generation 1, flavor = 1.
Preon wavefunction
The hc-quadruplet has 4 positions with the hc−charges {L−, L+, R−, R+}, and
the particle wavefunction of a fermion (lepton or quark) has two positions occu-
pied with indices (i, j)
u = {.. ( u1 ) ... ( u2 ) ...} u1 and u2 are preon Weyl spinors with 2 components.
For the preons we use here a model of a gaussian “blob”
 r − r )2 
 exp ( −i t Eu ) exp  − (
 
u ,k
 cos a 
 k
 2 dru , k 
k

 
uk ( t , r ,θ ) =   (13)
  
 (r − r )  2 
 
 exp ( −i t Euk ) exp  − 2 dr
 u ,k
 sin ak 
  
  u ,k
 

where Euk is the energy, ru , k = ( ruk ,θ uk ) and dru , k is the position (r, θ) and
its width, ak is a phase.
A basic particle of the Standard Model consists of 2 preons ui and 1, 4, 15
hc-bosons Agi for generation 1, 2, 3 respectively. The hc-boson number i of
Agi is equal to the general Gell-Mann matrix λ4 .
For instance, the electron has one hc-boson Ag 4 = A13 corresponding
Gell-Mann matrix λ4 , and the preon configuration
electron e = (rL−, rR−), occupied positions (1, 3)
  rL −   rR −  
electron configuration: u =    ,0,   ,0 
 0   0  
  0   0 
Antiparticle positron configuration u =  0,   ,0,   
  rL +   rR +  
The SU(4) Lagrangian

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From 2.1 we have for the SU(4) Lagrangian

( 1
)
= u iγ µ Dµ − m u − F a µν Fa µν ,
LQHCD
4
where u is the particle (lepton or quark) wave function defined above, and the
covariant derivative is Dµ =∂ µ − i g Ag a µ λa with SU(4) Gell-Mann 4 × 4 ma-
trices λa ( a = 1, ,15 ) and the field tensor is

∂ µ ( Ag a )ν − ∂ν ( Ag a ) µ + g f abc ( Agb ) µ ( Ag c )ν ,
Fa , µν =

where Ag a are the hc-boson wavefunctions ( a = 1, ,15 ).


( )
The action is S = ∫ LQHCD x µ , ui , Agi r 2 sin θ dt dr dθ dφ , which is to be inte-
grated over the particle
V
volume V and minimized in the parameters of u and
Ag .
a

The parameters of the component preons and the hc-bosons within a particle
are (see below):
par ( ui ) = { Eui , ai , rui ,θ ui , drui } , par ( Agi ) = { EAi , aAi } ,

where Eui and EAi are energies, ai and aAi are internal phases,
( rui ,θ ui , drui ) describe particle’s location and smear-out.
The calculation method of minimization of SU(4) action is shown below for
the electron in a schematic Table 4(a).

4.2. The Numerical Algorithm


The energy, length, and time are made dimensionsless by using the units: E
c
E0 = 0.196 TeV ), r(fm), t(am/c) am = 10−18 m. We can assume axial
(=
1 am
symmetry, so we can set φ = 0 and use the spherical coordinates
( t , r ,θ ) .
We choose the equidistant lattice for the intervals ( t , r ,θ ) ∈ [ 0,1] × [ 0,1] × [ 0, π]
with 21 × 21 × 11 points and, for the minimization 8x in parallel, 8 random sub-
lattices [4] [19]:

l [ix, j ]
= {{( t
i1 3 ) | ( i1, i 2, i 3 )
, ri 2 , ti= =
random ( lattice, j 1,= }
 ,100 )} | ix 1,,8 .

For the Ritz-Galerkin expansion in ( r ,θ ) we use the 12 functions


{ bfunc ( r , r0 , dr0 ) r k1 , k1 =
f k ( r ,θ ) = } {(
0, , nr × cos k2 θ ,cos k2 θ sin θ , k2 = )
0,, nθ }
( )
The action S = ∫ LQHCD x µ , ui , Agi r 2 sin θ dt dr dθ dφ becomes a mean-value
on the sublattice l [ix ]
1
S [ix ] = ∑ LQHCD ( x, ui , Agi ) 2πVtrθ ,
N ( l [ix ]) x∈l [ix]sub

where Vtrθ = π the ( t , r ,θ ) -volume and N ( l [ix ]) is the number of points.


We set N ( l [ix ]) = 100 for generation 1 and 2, N ( l [ix ]) = 25 for generation 3.

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Table 4(a). Minimization of SU (4) action for the electron.

We impose the boundary condition for Agi (= ) 0 via penalty-function


r r0=
(imposing exact conditions is possible, but slows down the minimization process
enormously).
S is minimized 8x in parallel with the Mathematica-minimization method
“simulated annealing”.
The proper parameters of the component preons and the hc-bosons within a
particle are:
par ( ui ) = { Eui , ai , rui ,θ ui , drui } , par ( Agi ) = { EAi , aAi }

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Eui is the energy-mass of the preon ui


ai is sin(phase) of the preon ui , where phase is the phase between the two
spinor components
( rui ,θ ui ) is the location of the preon ui
drui is the uncertainty (stdev) of rui
EAi is the energy of the hc-boson Agi
aAi is sin(phase) of the hc-boson Agi , where phase is the phase between the
two upper and the two lower components of the vector Agi
The complexities and execution times (on a 2.7 GHz Xeon E5 work-station)
differ greatly for different generations.
  rL −   rR −  
For the generation 1 electron e =    ,0,   ,0  with 1 hc boson A13:
 0   0  
complexity (Lagrangian) = 6.2 × 106 terms, minimization time t (minimiza-
tion) = 37 s.
  rL −   rR −  
For the generation 3 tauon τ =    ,0,   ,0  with all 15 hc-bosons:
 0   0  
complexity (Lagrangian) = 283 × 106 terms, minimization time t (minimiza-
tion) = 2500 s.

5. The Particles and Families of the SU(4)-Preon Model


Here we present the result of the calculation of the masses, inner structure, and
some of the angles of the mixing matrices CKM and PMNS, using the minimiza-
tion of the action described in chap.4.

5.1. Charged Leptons Electron, Muon, Tau


Spin S = 1/2, two free preons, occupying fixed positions in the hc-tetra-spinor
  rL −   rR −  
Preon configuration: u =    ,0,   ,0 
 0   0  
Boson configuration: flavor = 1: ( A13 = λ 4 ) , flavor = 2:
( A13 λ=
= 4, A13 λ=
5, A24 λ11,
= A24 λ12 )
flavor = 3: all 15 bosons
The leptons are charged particles, they interact electromagnetically or weakly
via Z and W bosons.
The leptons are spherically symmetric, and have therefore the gyromagnetic
ratio g = 2 exactly, which is valid from the Dirac-equation for a point-like (or
spherically symmetric) spin-1/2-particle.
The spherical symmetry arises from the fact, that all leptons consist of two
r-preons, which differ only in the hc-charge, so it is plausible that their geome-
tric parameters are equal (equal radius ri, its uncertainty dri, equal phase angle ai,
and inter-preon-angle th = 0), as is shown in calculation.
In the energy distribution, the preons (shown in the first two values: i = (1, 2))
have considerably less energy than the hc-bosons in the case of the muon and

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the tauon, for the electron the only hc-boson carries almost all of the energy.
The calculated and observed masses of the charged leptons are shown in Ta-
ble 5.
The energy of component preons and field bosons are shown in Figures 4-6.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 7.
The parameters of the three generations (flavors) are shown in Tables 6-8.

Table 5. Charged lepton masses.

m (e) m (mu) m (tau)

exp. 0.511 MeV 106 MeV 1.78 GeV

calc. 0.29 ± 0.23 MeV 228 ± 150 MeV 2.26 ± 0.7 GeV

Table 6. Parameters of the electron.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)

0.0256, −0.27, 0.104, 0.276,


0.241 −0.017 0
0.0256 −0.27 0.104 0.276

ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)

0.057, 0.058, 0.014,


0.121 .
0.044 0.058 0.014

Table 7. Parameters of the muon.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)

0.00036, 0.0013, −0.48, 0.24, 0.266, 0.648, 0.68,


24.06, 24.06 0
46.33, 133.75 −0.48 −0.55, −0.632 0.648 0.68

ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)

0.00045, 0.0011, 0.045, 0.047,


18.32, 18.32 .
30.89, 87.17 0.045 0.047

Figure 4. Energy distribution of electron: first preons (u1, u2), then


bosons Agi.

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Figure 5. Energy distribution of muon: first preons (u1, u2), then


bosons Agi.

Figure 6. Energy distribution of tauon: first preons (u1, u2), then


bosons Agi.

Table 8. Parameters of the tauon.

Eui MeV EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


−0.33192, −0.0188942,
0.000258, 1.274, −0.0449149, −0.325663,
3.51, 8.51, 11.45, −0.0118209, \
18.12, 25.0369, −0.0943335, −0.226005,
77.68, 0.216842, 0.19, 0.36,
30.46, 37.057, −0.149676, 0.143007, 0
77.68 0.216842 0.19 0.36
52.78, 69.55, 0.0745547,
106.83, 191.129, 0.102575, −0.154493,
259.009, 1297.48 −0.0987211, −0.161108,
−0.0258635
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.00028103,
1.68893,
2.36353, 5.65246,
6.56911, 9.40924,
77.66, 0.033, 0.076,
11.9228, 11.9599, .
77.66 0.033 0.077
15.7698,
30.2164, 34.4179,
17.5376, 107.57,
106.864, 180.17

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Figure 7. Structure of charged leptons: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, uncertainty
dri and angle th.

electron e = (rL−, rR−)


  rL −   rR −  
Preon configuration: u =    ,0,   ,0 
 0   0  
  0   0 
Antiparticle positron u =  0,   ,0,  
  rL +   rR +  
hc-boson Ag 4  λ 4 , as A13 = λ 4
Eexp = 0.511 MeV Q = −1
Etot = 0.29 MeV, ΔEtot = 0.23 MeV
muon mu = (rL−, rR−)
hc-bosons
= 13  λ 4, Ag5 A=
Ag 4 A= 13  λ 5, Ag11 A24
=  λ11, Ag12 A 24  λ12
Eexp = 106 MeV Q = −1
Etot = 228 MeV, ΔEtot = 154
tauon tau = (rL−, rR−)
hc-bosons: all 15 Ag1 , , Ag15
Eexp = 1.78 GeV Q = −1
Etot = 2.26 GeV, ΔEtot = 0.70.

5.2. Lepton Neutrinos νe, νmu, νtau


Spin S = 1/2, two free preons, occupying fixed positions in the hc-tetra-spinor
  rL −   0  
Preon configuration: u =   ,  ,0,0 
  0   rL +  
Boson configuration: flavor = 1: ( A12 = λ1 ) , flavor = 2:
( A12 λ=
= 1 , A12 λ=
2 , A34 , A34 λ14 )
λ13=
flavor = 3: all 15 bosons
The lepton neutrinos [27] are spherically symmetric, as shown in the calcula-
tion, and have therefore zero magnetic momentum. The spherical symmetry

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arises from the fact, that all leptons consist of two r-preons, which differ only in
the hc-charge, so it is plausible that their geometric parameters are equal (equal
radius ri, its uncertainty dri, equal phase angle ai, and inter-preon-angle th = 0).
The lepton neutrinos are neutral, interact only weak via Z and W bosons.
As for mass, the best upper limit from cosmological data is m < 0.12 eV.
The calculated masses of the lepton neutrinos are shown in Table 9.
The energy of component preons and field bosons are shown in Figure 8.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 9.
The parameters of the three generations (flavors) are shown in Tables 10-12.

Figure 8. Energy distribution of lepton neutrinos: first preons (u1, u2),


then bosons Ai.

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Figure 9. Structure of lepton neutrinos: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, uncer-
tainty dri and angle th.

Table 9. Lepton neutrino masses.

m (nue) m (num) m (nut)


exp.
calc. 0.30 meV 11 meV 98 meV

Table 10. Parameters of the electron neutrino.

Eui (meV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


0.0195789, −0.00159052, 0.672092, 0.817591,
0.0198727 0.000719502 −0.0362275
0.0198162 0.00281348 0.672795 0.817365
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.000442384, 0.0533686, 0.000416971
0.0000872723 .
0.000217995 0.0533475 , 0.00028167

Table 11. Parameters of the muon neutrino.

Eui (meV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


1.83322,
1.83215, 1.83333, 0.00294051, 0.306423, 0.943812,
0.000719502 0.02
1.80438 1.83335, 0.00304653 0.3312 0.936186
1.84298
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.000209844,
0.00234254, 2.8895 × 10−6, 0.111082, 0.126494,
.
0.0359295 0.0000362216, 0.111082 0.179059
0.0162998

e-neutrino nue = (rL−, rL+)


  rL −   0  
Preon configuration: u =   ,  ,0,0 
  0   rL +  

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Table 12. Parameters of the tauon neutrino.

Eui (meV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


5.74263, 0.0645884,
5.74519, 0.0321258,
5.74578, 0.0714192,
5.74647, 0.0356015,
5.74688, 0.0665154,
5.74707, 0.0652989,
5.74725, 0.060689,
5.74691, 0.00216278, 0.306423, 1.1011,
5.74761, 0.0555585, 0.0414724
5.74691 −0.0145027 0.3312 1.07371
5.7479, 0.0499117,
5.74861, 0.062275,
5.74951, 0.0407549,
5.75005, 0.0359398,
5.7531, 0.0666184,
5.7595, 0.0482816,
5.79127 0.031136
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.112495,
0.112474,
0.112249,
0.111351,
0.110999,
0.110905,
0.110818,
0.110619, 0.207277, 0.0609252,
0.110445, .
0.110619 0.197369 0.06686
0.110137,
0.109776,
0.109065,
0.108836,
0.107668,
0.102724,
0.09513

  rR −   0  
Antiparticle right-chiral antineutrino u =  0,0,  , 
  0   rR +  
Eexp < 0.12 eV Q = 0
Etot = 0.30 meV, ΔEtot = 0.038
mu-neutrino num = (rL−, rL+)
Eexp < 0.12 eV Q = 0
Etot = 11.0 meV, ΔEtot = 0.055
tau-neutrino nut = (rL−, rL+)
Eexp < 0.12 eV Q = 0
Etot = 98.0 meV, ΔEtot = 1.85.

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5.3. Non-Chiral Sterile (Hypothetical) Neutrinos νs1, νs2, νs3


Spin S = 1/2, two free preons, occupying fixed positions in the hc-tetra-spinor
  rL −   0 
Preon configuration: u =    ,0,0,  
 0   rR +  
Boson configuration: flavor = 1: ( A14 = λ9 ) , flavor = 2:
( A14 λ=
= 9 , A14 λ10=
, A23 λ= 6 , A 23 λ7 )
flavor = 3: all 15 bosons
The hypothetical sterile neutrinos are involved in the neutron decay and inte-
ract only among themselves and with lepton neutrinos via the weak chiral boson
ZL (see 4.1), so the denomination “sterile” is justified. They have similar masses
as the lepton neutrinos, but they are Majorana particles: antiparticle = particle.
Like lepton neutrinos, they are spherically symmetric and have zero magnetic
momentum.
The calculated masses of the sterile neutrinos are shown in Table 13.
The energy of component preons and field bosons are shown in Figure 10.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 11.
The parameters of the three generations (flavors) are shown in Tables 14-16.

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Figure 10. Energy distribution of sterile neutrinos: first preons (u1, u2), then
bosons Ai.

Figure 11. Structure of sterile neutrinos: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, uncertainty
dri and angle th.

Table 13. Masses of sterile neutrinos.

m (nus1) m (nus2) m (nus3)


exp.

calc. 0.09 meV 3.6 meV 100 meV

Table 14. Parameters of the sterile e-neutrino.

Eui (meV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)

0.0295438, 0.00981786, 0.247601, 1.0941,


0.03085 0.000719502 0.0385823
0.0295438 −0.00539754 0.245064 1.09465

ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)

0.000714214, 0.00802575, 0.00348974,


0.000840173 .
0.000714214 0.00776682 0.00362492

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Table 15. Parameters of the sterile mu-neutrino.

Eui (meV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


0.610776, 0.524038,
0.555866, 0.610849, 0.0837203, 0.145884, 2.22087, 0.439613,
0.0
0.555866 0.616444, 0.0837203 0.584979, 2.22087 0.439613
0.616708 0.615694
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.029421,
0.0579322, 0.0294231, 1.8611, 0.337827,
.
0.0579322 0.0244551, 1.8611 0.337827
0.0243638

Table 16. Parameters of the sterile tau-neutrino.

Eui (meV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


5.88029, 0.0517683,
5.88029, 0.0478681,
5.88029, 0.156694,
5.88029, 0.0480563,
5.88029, 0.0494643,
5.88029, 0.0577212,
5.88029, 0.0685586,
5.87822, 0.0997489, 0.0261638, 0.0974364,
5.88029, 0.155112, 0.0
5.87822 0.0997489 0.0261638 0.0974364
5.88029, 0.0500668,
5.88029, 0.050109,
5.88029, 0.0505401,
5.88029, 0.15493,
5.88029, 0.468362,
5.88029, 0.154732,
5.88029 0.155897
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.00339045,
0.00339045,
0.00339044,
0.00339043,
0.00339043,
0.00339043,
0.00339042,
0.00678084, 0.0738441, 0.0850158,
0.00339042, .
0.00678084 0.0738441 0.0850158
0.00339042,
0.00339042,
0.00339041,
0.00339011,
0.00338995,
0.00338953,
0.00338949

nc-neutrino 1 nus1 = (rL−, rR+)


  rL −   0 
Preon configuration: u =    ,0,0,  
 0   rR +  

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Antiparticle u = u (Majorana neutrino)


Eexp = ? Q = 0
Etot = 0.090 meV, ΔEtot = 0.023
nc-neutrino 2 nus2 = (rL−, rR+)
Eexp = ? Q = 0
Etot = 3.56 meV, ΔEtot = 0.22
nc-neutrino 3 nus3 = (rL−, rR+)
Eexp = Q = 0
Etot = 100 meV, ΔEtot = 0.064.

5.4. U-Quarks u, c, t
Spin S = 1/2, two free preons, occupying fixed positions in the hc-tetra-spinor
  ( rL + + qL + ) 2   ( rR + + qR + ) 2  
Preon configuration: u =  0,   ,0,  
  ( rL + + qL + ) 2   ( rR + + qR + ) 2  
    
Boson configuration: flavor = 1: ( A24 = λ11 ) , flavor = 2:
( A24 λ11=
= , A24 λ12
= , A13 λ=
4 , A13 λ5 )
flavor = 3: all 15 bosons
The U-quarks have the composition (r+, q+), and they are non-chiral, i.e. a
superposition of (rL+, qR+) and (rR+, qL+). They are non-symmetric in r and q,
so their internal structure is cylinder-symmetric or ring-symmetric, therefore
there are corrections to the standard gyromagnetic factor 2, like for the nucleons.
They carry the color charge, and do not appear separately, as the overall color
must be zero (white).
The calculated and observed masses of the U-quarks are shown in Table 17.
The energy of component preons and field bosons are shown in Figure 12.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 13.
The parameters of the three generations (flavors) are shown in Tables 18-20.

Table 17. Masses of U-quarks.

m (u) m (c) m (t)


exp. 2.3 MeV 1.34 GeV 171 GeV

calc. 2.35 ± 0.26 MeV 3.2 ± 1.87 GeV 163 ± 55 GeV

Table 18. Parameters of the up-quark.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)

0.00100815, 0.0674651, 0.209696, 0.0263,


1.58472 −0.538922 0.318731
0.00100963 0.100981 0.253259 −0.280785

ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)

0.000620367, 0.0522386, 0.0472523,


0.254744 .
0.00057238 0.0483211 0.0327625

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Table 19. Parameters of the c-quark.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


84.6596, 0.187462,
207.62, 281.775, −0.0473157, 0.228959, 0.157295, 0.0654933,
0.15086
158.774 304.222, −0.196647 0.152956, 0.31158 0.259696
2180.43 −0.33979
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
281.296,
482.44, 312.201, 0.0332725, 0.00845404,
.
296.717 159.539, 0.0300652 0.00406528
339.955

Table 20. Parameters of the t-quark.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


447.568, 0.0345205,
1324.51, −0.0889711,
1905.22, 0.117581,
3572.08, 0.0804355,
4060.9, 0.0439144,
5512.97, 0.0473357,
7201.35, −0.10843,
16169.4, 0.260102, 2.30158, 0.661335,
8224.84, 0.016335, 0.381818
10963.2 −0.288355 2.56518 −0.588081
8756.76, −0.129588,
9567.63, −0.247394,
11233.9, −0.0279795,
12195.9, −0.18897,
14838.4, −0.337228,
19649.7, 0.0823711,
27968.5 −0.174481
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
650.619,
827.92,
845.732,
723.36,
260.622,
1147.26,
2692.84,
10545.1, 0.896934, 0.559172,
3336.08, .
7710.93 0.609087 0.505538
3111.95,
2532.61,
1738.6,
1466.69,
3647.34,
7499.15,
7115.09

up-quark u = (rL+ + qR+)/ 2


  ( rL + + qL + ) 2   ( rR + + qR + ) 2 
Preon configuration: u =  0,   ,0,  
  ( rL + + qL + ) 2   ( rR + + qR + ) 2  
 

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  ( rL − + qL − ) 2   ( rR − + qR − ) 2 
Antiparticle u =    ,0,   ,0 
  ( rL − + qL − ) 2   ( rR − + qR − ) 2  


Figure 12. Energy distribution of U-quarks: first preons (u1,


u2), then bosons Ai.

Figure 13. Structure of U-quarks: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, un-
certainty dri and angle th.

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hc-boson Ag11  λ11


Eexp = 2.3 MeV Q = +2/3
Etot = 2.35 MeV, ΔEtot = 0.26
c-quark c = (rL+ + qR+)/ 2
hc-bosons
=Ag11 A24 =  λ11, Ag12 A 24=  λ12, Ag 4 A=
13  λ 4, Ag5 A13  λ 5
Eexp = 1.34 GeV Q = +2/3
Etot = 3.2 GeV, ΔEtot = 1.87
t-quark t = (rL+ + qR+)/ 2
hc-bosons: all 15 Ag1 , , Ag15
Eexp = 171 GeV Q = +2/3
Etot = 163 GeV, ΔEtot = 55.

5.5. D-Quarks d, s, b
Spin S = 1/2, two free preons, occupying fixed positions in the hc-tetra-spinor
  ( rL − + qL + ) 2   ( rR − + qR + ) 2  
Preon configuration: u =    ,0,   ,0 

 0   0  
Boson configuration: flavor = 1: ( A13 = λ4 ) , flavor = 2:
=( 13 λ=
A 4 , A13 λ=
5 , A24 , A24 λ12 )
λ11=
flavor = 3: all 15 bosons
The D-quarks have the composition (r−, q+), and they are non-chiral, i.e. a
superposition of (rL−, qR+) and (rR−, qL+). They are non-symmetric in r and q,
so their internal structure is cylinder-symmetric or ring-symmetric, therefore
there are corrections to the standard gyromagnetic factor 2, like for the nucle-
ons.
Apparently, the breaking of spherical symmetry is caused by flavor-mixing, as
demonstrated in the dC-quark.
They carry the color charge, and do not appear separately, as the overall color
must be zero (white).
D-quark flavors intermix via the CKM-matrix, its angles can be calculated (see
dC-quark) by making a linear combination with variable CKM-angles, inserting
into the hc-Lagrangian and minimizing. The solution is the energetically optimal
CKM-mixture and yields the observed CKM-angles.
The calculated and observed masses of the D-quarks are shown in Table 21.
The energy of component preons and field bosons of the three flavors and
Cabibbo-mixed quark (d, s) are shown in Figure 14.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 15.

Table 21. Masses of D-quarks.

m (d) m (dC), α (C) m (s) m (b)


exp. 4.8 MeV 4.8 MeV, 13.04˚ 100 MeV 4.2 GeV
calc. 4.58 ± 0.3 MeV 4.74 MeV, 13.1˚ 149 ± 15 MeV 6.1 ± 2.9 GeV

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dC = d-part of Cabibbo-mixed quark (d, s), calculated Cabibbo-angle aC12 = 0.229 =


13.13˚ (exp. 13.04˚ + −0.05)

Figure 14. Energy distribution of D-quarks: first preons (u1, u2),


then bosons Ai.

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The parameters of the three of the three flavors and Cabibbo-mixed quark (d,
s) are shown in Tables 22-25.
down-quark d = (rL− + qR+)/ 2
  ( rL − + qL + ) 2   ( rR − + qR + ) 2  
Preon configuration: u =    ,0,   ,0 

 0   0  
  0   0 
Antiparticle u =  0,   ,0,  
  ( rL + + qL − ) 2   ( rR + + qR − ) 2  
 
hc-boson: Ag 4  λ4
Eexp = 4.8 MeV Q = −1/3

Figure 15. Structure of D-quarks: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, uncertainty dri
and angle th.

Table 22. Parameters of the down-quark.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


0.0011901, 0.067465, 0.209696, 0.0263002,
3.81209 −0.538924 0.318731
0.000620564 0.100981 0.253259 −0.280785
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.000811471, 0.0188066, 0.00476172,
0.305601 .
0.00070369 0.0900718 0.00350625

Table 23. Parameters of the s-quark.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


6.94284, −0.339778,
18.791, 24.1632, −0.047311, 0.228951, 0.157295, 0.0654906,
0.150859
5.99053 43.9623, −0.196639 0.164457, 0.311592 0.259695
48.9406 0.175962
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
2.1682,
1.73863, 1.88257, 0.018, 0.0183405,
1.93842 6.34742, 0.0088 0.08854
1.22757

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Table 24. Parameters of the b-quark.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


35.4338, −0.119199,
69.6218, 0.0701848,
92.0785, 0.0403467,
120.049, 0.2601,
193.853, 0.0412506,
224.967, 0.175386,
255.088, −0.0645038,
601.532, −0.350658, 2.00585, 0.0775948,
266.136, 0.196578, 0.186426
130.4 0.419618 1.73462 0.502463
297.881, 0.00791169,
348.389, −0.0408362,
446.951, −0.309195,
535.473, 0.147146,
559.583, 0.0139774,
713.301, −0.126303,
1232.01 −0.178367
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
20.0937,
39.4015,
39.3106,
70.0438,
171.994,
191.423,
173.845,
472.193, 0.903552, 0.0546897,
173.003,
67.3475 0.675784 0.235836
149.678,
106.309,
107.786,
107.91,
124.87,
228.263,
689.167

Table 25. Parameters of the Cabibbo-mixed down-quark.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


1.55842, −0.624805, 0.495338, 0.877748,
1.00898 −0.649125 0.332405
1.40699 0.263432 0.386903 0.308765
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
1.38348, 0.00188066, 0.122162,
0.373778 .
0.700002 0.0900718 0.0502502

Etot = 4.58 MeV, ΔEtot = 0.31


s-quark s = (rL− + qR+)/ 2
hc-bosons
= 13  λ4 , Ag5 A=
Ag 4 A= 13  λ5 , Ag11 A24
=  λ11 , Ag12 A 24  λ12
Eexp = 100 MeV Q = −1/3
Etot = 149 MeV, ΔEtot = 15
b-quark b = (rL− + qR+)/ 2
hc-bosons: all 15 Ag1 , , Ag15

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Eexp = 4.2 GeV Q = −1/3


Etot = 6.1 GeV, ΔEtot = 2.9
Cabibbo-mixed down-quark dC = (rL− + qR+)/ 2
Eexp = 4.8 MeV Q = −1/3
Etot = 4.74 MeV, ΔEtot = 2.45.

5.6. Weak Massive Bosons W, Z0, ZL, H


Spin S = 1 or = 0, one preon u1: combination of one, two or four spinors
Preon configuration:
  u1 
u =  0,0,   ,0  for weak exchange boson W, S = 1
 0 
  u1  0   u1  0  
u =    ,   ,   ,    for weak exchange boson Z0, S = 1
  0   u1  0   u1 
  u1  u1 
u =    ,   ,0,0  for (hypothetical) left-chiral Z-boson ZL, S = 1
  u1  u1 
  u1  u1  u1  u1 
u =    ,   ,   ,    for higgs H, S = 0
  u1  u1  u1  u1 
Boson configuration: only one flavor = 3: all 15 bosons
The weak massive bosons are the Yukawa bosons of the hc-interaction, i.e.
they mediate the residual force of the hc-interaction in the form of a exponen-
tially decreasing potential.
As shown below, they are spherically symmetric, the only preon is located ap-
proximately at radius r ≈ 1 am.
The L-projections of leptons and quarks interact via SU(2) and (W, Z0) bo-
sons, the R-projections of leptons and quarks interact via SU(1) and Z0.
This happens because of the SU(4)-symmetry breaking
SU ( 4 ) = SU ( 2 )L ⊗ SU (1)R ⊗ SU (1)em with their exchange bosons
{W } ⊗ {Z 0} ⊗ { Aem } .
The higgs H is the only scalar among them, it generates mass for leptons and
quarks, and also for the r-preon.
The sterile nc-neutrinos interact SU(2)-weakly with neutrinos via the (hypo-
thetical) ZL-boson.
The calculated and observed masses of the weak massive bosons are shown in
Table 26.
The energy of component preons and field bosons are shown in Figure 16.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 17.

Table 26. Masses of weak massive bosons.

m (W) m (Z0) m (ZL) m (H)


exp. 80.4 GeV 91.2 GeV 125.1 GeV
calc. 89 GeV 97 GeV 91 GeV 125 GeV

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Figure 16. Energy distribution of weak massive bosons: first preons


(u1), then bosons Ai.

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Figure 17. Structure of weak massive bosons: preons (u1) radii ri,
uncertainty dri and angle th, the only preon is located approx-
imately at radius r ≈ 1 am.

The parameters of the individual bosons are shown in Tables 27-30.


weak right-handed exchange boson W−− W−− = (rR− − rR−)/ 2 , S = 1
  u1 
Preon configuration: u =  0,0,   ,0  2 u=
1 ( ( rR − ) − ( rR − ) ) 2 antipar-
 0 
 0 
ticle W = W + configuration u =  0,   ,0,0  u=
1 ( ( rL + ) − ( rL + ) ) 2 hy-
  u1 
  u1 
pothetical chiral counterpart: left-handed W* u =    ,0,0,0 
 0  
u=
1 ( ( rL − ) − ( rL − ) ) 2
Eexp = 80.4 GeV Q = −1
Etot = 89 GeV, ΔEtot = 26
neutral weak exchange boson Z0 Z0 = (rL− + rR− + rL+ + rR+)/2, S = 1
  u1  0   u1  0  
Preon configuration: u =    ,  , ,  2
  0   Cu1  0   Cu1 
u=
1 ( ( rL − ) + ( rR − ) ) 2 Cu=
1 ( ( rL + ) + ( rR + ) ) 2
antiparticle Z 0 = Z 0
Eexp = 91.2 GeV Q = 0
Etot = 97 GeV, ΔEtot = 30
neutral left-handed weak (hypothetical) ZL ZL = (rL− + rL+)/ 2 , S = 1
  u1  u1 
1 ( ( rL − ) + ( rL + ) ) 2 an-
Preon configuration: u =    ,   ,0,0  2 u=
  u1  u1 
  u1  u1 
tiparticle right-handed Z L u =  0,0,   ,    2 u=
1 ( ( rR − ) + ( rR + ) ) 2
  u1  u1 
Eexp = ? Q = 0
Etot = 91 GeV, ΔEtot = 28
neutral mass-generating scalar higgs boson H H = (rL− + rL+ + rR- +
rR+)/2, S = 0

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Table 27. Parameters of the W-boson.

Eui (GeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


0.316331, 0.0551789,
0.68873, −0.362417,
1.31464, −0.131927,
1.8232, 0.176835,
2.48807, −0.207657,
3.07844, 0.0407577,
3.6289, 0.0430164,
8.20997 4.09488, −0.294831 0.042737, 2.6109 1.17267 0
4.45176, −0.161912,
5.1892, 0.0364995,
6.90223, 0.056686,
8.4103, 0.0374209,
8.99396, 0.10742,
12.5852, −0.0329776,
17.5486 0.0255881
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.188613,
0.334553,
0.70658,
0.801391,
0.626902,
0.823354,
0.876158,
10.1252 1.0928, 0.81355 0.654887
0.869573,
0.559216,
2.0035,
2.08725,
1.95618,
1.91668,
1.3873

Table 28. Parameters of the Z0-boson.

Eui (GeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


0.601016, 0.0551789,
1.31219, −0.362417,
2.03588, −0.131927,
2.57426, 0.176835,
3.10174, −0.207657,
3.96319, 0.0407577,
4.46575, 0.0430164,
6.04329 5.33916, −0.294831 0.042737, 2.6109 1.17267 0
6.22519, −0.161912,
7.11513, 0.0364995,
8.06896, 0.056686,
8.94095, 0.0374209,
10.9788, 0.10742,
13.0787, −0.0329776,
13.777 0.0255881

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Continued
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.42354,
0.63418,
0.928717,
0.946956,
1.1372,
1.30358,
1.4114,
4.21067 1.20844, 0.81355 0.654887
1.02434,
1.25918,
1.27045,
0.93689,
2.58041,
5.49091,
5.57065

Table 29. Parameters of the ZL-boson.

Eui (GeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


0.635455, −0.0634903,
1.45762, −0.0177523,
1.94515, 0.0393775,
2.40743, −0.0141295,
2.76174, 0.238785,
3.62666, 0.06813,
4.40736, −0.0828258,
5.41018 5.29138, −0.28215 −0.0566217, 4.20897 1.10542 0
5.81184, 0.0147406,
6.81575, −0.0549006,
7.50969, −0.129071,
8.17982, −0.193776,
9.70438, 0.0224101,
12.2009, −0.196448,
13.1613 −0.0777609
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.361193,
0.294054,
0.542048,
0.685343,
0.734258,
1.14914,
1.37386,
3.61896 1.86499, 0.896122 0.764349
2.16942,
2.02409,
1.91406,
1.31147,
1.01549,
4.24462,
4.70292

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Table 30. Parameters of the higgs H.

Eui (GeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


0.687867, 0.203185,
1.06114, 0.209845,
1.89688, 0.0797134,
2.72051, 0.249824,
3.1891, 0.098651,
4.31443, −0.0453497,
4.70774, 0.111729,
2.12256 5.75923, 0.242174 0.153663, 2.65352 1.31158 0
6.2929, 0.156595,
7.21059, 0.261526,
8.37697, −0.0971455,
10.7365, −0.0358294,
13.3999, 0.0815874,
22.669, 0.0875567,
30.1505 −0.0353346
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.596931,
0.840909,
0.733675,
1.05086,
1.1562,
1.75893,
1.94705,
0.963583 1.83638, 0.164707 0.599096
2.30989,
2.54619,
2.87418,
4.01778,
2.02776,
10.3933,
8.6628

  u1  u1  u1  u1 


Preon configuration: u =    ,   ,   ,    2
  u1  u1  u1  u1 
u=
1 ( ( rL − ) + ( rL + ) + ( rR − ) + ( rR + ) ) 2
antiparticle: itself H = H
Eexp = 125.1 GeV Q = 0
Etot = 125 GeV, ΔEtot = 44.

5.7. Strong Neutrinos (Hypothetical) qνe qνm qνt


Spin S = 1/2, two free preons, occupying fixed positions in the hc-tetra-spinor
  qL −   0  
Preon configuration: u =   ,  ,0,0 
  0   qL +  
Boson configuration: flavor = 1: ( A12 = λ1 ) , flavor = 2:
( A12 λ=
= 1 , A12 λ=
2 , A34 , A34 λ14 )
λ13=

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flavor = 3: all 15 bosons


The strong neutrinos are neutral spherically symmetric particles with compo-
sition (q+, q−) and have masses starting with 23 MeV. They can hc-interact via
Zq strong bosons, but only for high energies
(E~ m(Zq) = 644 GeV), they are colorless and do not interact strongly.
The strong neutrinos are spherically symmetric, the two preons are located
approximately at radius r ≈ 1 am, as shown in the structure plot below.
They are candidates for dark matter, as they are in the appropriate mass range
(around 100 MeV, according to the new SIMP-scheme for dark matter), and
they interact with themselves at high energies, as was observed for dark matter
in certain galaxies.
The calculated masses of the strong neutrinos are shown in Table 31.
The energy of component preons and field bosons are shown in Figure 18.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 19.
The parameters of the three generations (flavors) are shown in Tables 32-34.

Table 31. Masses of strong neutrinos.

m (qnue) m (qnum) m (qnut)


exp.
calc. 23.2 MeV 205 MeV 2.4 GeV

Table 32. Parameters of the qe-neutrino.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)

0.916713, 0.0499768, 0.218706, 1.08906,


19.1558 0.0499709 0.0495826
1.57978 0.0499806 0.217761 1.08886
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
2.59139, 0.00260392, 0.000467796,
6.42353
4.46489 0.0000482519 0.0000799548

Table 33. Parameters of the qm-neutrino.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


3.2139, 0.0499795,
2.31669, 27.2516, 0.049974, 0.0499777, 0.218962, 1.08916,
0.0494963
2.10932 36.8587, 0.0499723 0.0499851, 0.217768 1.08885
131.637 0.0499601

ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)

4.03572,
4.18504, 16.4507, 0.00272481, 0.000633244,
4.14824 20.6083, 0.0000218384 0.0000799629
43.8355

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Table 34. Parameters of the qt-neutrino.

Eui (MeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


6.27604, 0.0499212,
9.78005, 0.0499565,
14.0006, 0.0499232,
17.2518, 0.0499843,
26.4587, 0.0500119,
32.2502, 0.0499806,
44.8203, 0.0499806,
62.9487, 0.0498284, 0.250849, 1.09488,
62.4957, 0.0500343, 0.0362321
61.5266 0.0496889 0.21778 1.08809
71.6555, 0.0499183,
88.2316, 0.0495368,
105.198, 0.0499496,
154.92, 0.0501089,
251.417, 0.0500246,
406.445, 0.0500326,
980.267 0.0499384

ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)


7.47768,
7.63514,
11.768,
12.944,
23.1368,
23.3382,
31.1644,
80.6687, 0.0345065, 0.00516914,
43.8489,
82.6461 0.000493132 0.000793051
52.4387,
59.1117,
70.624,
56.9479,
109.749,
231.239,
579.301

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Figure 18. Energy distribution of strong neutrinos: first preons (u1,


u2), then bosons Ai.

Figure 19. Structure of strong neutrinos: preons (u1, u2) radii ri, un-
certainty dri and angle th.

qe-neutrino qnue = (qL−, qL+)


  0   qL +  
Preon configuration: left-handed q-neutrino u =   ,  ,0,0 
  qL −   0  
  0   qR +  
Antiparticle right-handed anti-q-neutrino u =  0,0,  ,  
  qR −   0  

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Eexp = ? Q = 0
Etot = 23 MeV, ΔEtot = 13.5
qm-neutrino qnum = (qL−, qL+)
Eexp = ? Q = 0
Etot = 205 MeV, ΔEtot = 93
qt-neutrino qnut = (qL−, qL+)
Eexp = ? Q = 0
Etot = 2.40 GeV, ΔEtot = 1.48.

5.8. Strong Bosons (Hypothetical) Zq, Hq


Spin S = 1 or = 0, one free preon u1: combination of four spinors
Preon configuration:
  u1  0   u1  0  
u =    ,   ,   ,    for strong exchange boson Zq
  0   u1  0   u1 
  u1  u1  u1  u1 
u =    ,   ,   ,    for q-higgs Hq
  u1  u1  u1  u1 
Boson configuration; all hc-bosons active flavor = 3
The strong bosons are color-neutral and do not interact by color.
They are spherically symmetric, the only preon is located approximately at ra-
dius r ≈ 1 am, as shown in the structure plot below.
The strong boson Zq is the Yukawa-boson for the hc-interaction of
q-neutrinos.
The strong higgs Hq generates masses for the q-neutrinos and for the
q-preons.
The q-neutrinos interact very weakly, because the masses of the strong bosons
are very large.
The calculated masses of the strong bosons are shown in Table 35.
The energy of component preons and field bosons are shown in Figure 20.
The structure, i.e. calculated average distances of components with smear-out
are shown in Figure 21.
The parameters of the individual bosons are shown in Table 36, Table 37.

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Figure 20. Energy distribution of strong bosons: first preon (u1),


then bosons Ai.

Table 35. Masses of strong bosons.

m (Zq) m (Hq)
exp.
calc. 644 GeV 637 GeV

Table 36. Parameters of the strong boson Zq.

Eui (GeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui )


1.75913, 0.231796,
20.0747, −0.207073,
22.9369, 0.131049,
27.0332, −0.253369,
31.3827, 0.15414,
35.2293, 0.199737,
36.2947, 0.161236,
50.1031 37.6842, 0.242169 0.266433, 2.90034 0.953641 0
46.383, −0.269026,
47.6871, 0.131364,
49.7122, 0.155354,
52.4871, 0.203886,
54.6914, 0.235986,
64.7501, 0.226728,
66.1951 0.056805
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
1.40428,
2.2256,
2.1451,
4.24188,
3.13026,
1.44886,
1.19789,
0.501804 1.53643, 0.0598953 0.243724
1.07209,
0.567924,
0.839207,
1.81534,
1.76197,
1.38173,
1.23064

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J. Helm

Figure 21. Structure of strong bosons: preon (u1) radii ri, uncertainty dri
and angle th, the only preon is located approximately at radius r ≈ 1 am.

Table 37. Parameters of the strong higgs Hq.

Eui (GeV) EAi ai aAi drui rui sin (θui)


66.1951},
{49.8974, 0.207549,
1.49444, −0.304129,
19.6994, 0.131516,
22.5362, −0.254004,
26.3583, 0.253908,
30.6179, 0.206301,
34.632, 0.161453,
49.8974 35.8439, 0.242181 0.252253, 2.97112 1.03787 0
37.1908, −0.272395,
46.1384, 0.131765,
47.4992, 0.163953,
49.4017, 0.204921,
51.9202, 0.242696,
54.0522, 0.221589,
64.3069, 0.0809426
65.783
ΔEui ΔEAi Δai ΔaAi Δdrui Δrui Δsin (θui)
0.958115,
1.67958,
1.65813,
3.0444,
1.70715,
0.281763,
0.812278,
0.0563816 0.540787, 0.071377 0.253642
0.748368,
0.324524,
0.292485,
2.08406,
0.685153,
0.707936,
1.09514

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strong exchange boson Zq Zq = (qL− + qR− + qL+ + qR+)/2


  u1  0   u1  0  
Preon configuration: u =    ,  , ,  2
  0   Cu1  0   Cu1 
=
Cu1 ( ( qL − ) + ( qR − ) ) 2 =
u1 ( ( qL + ) + ( qR + ) ) 2
antiparticle itself Z q = Z q
Eexp = ? Q = 0, S = 1
Etot = 644 GeV, ΔEtot = 26
strong higgs scalar boson (hypothetical) Hq, Hq = (qL− + qL+ + qR− +
qR+)/2
  u1  u1  u1  u1 
Preon configuration: u =    ,   ,   ,    2
  u1  u1  u1  u1 
=
u1 ( ( qL − ) + ( qL + ) + ( qR − ) + ( qR + ) ) 2
antiparticle: itself H q = H q
Eexp = ? Q = 0, S = 0
Etot = 637 GeV, ΔEtot = 17.

5.9. Mass Hierarchy and the Koide Formula


In 1982 Koide set up a formula for the 3 generations of charged lepton masses
[28]
2
( )
2
m1 + m2 + m
=3 m1 + m2 + m3 , where= m1 m= e , m2 m=
µ , m3 mτ or
3
( )
2
2 m1 + m2 + m3
for the Koide function k ( m1 , m2 , m3 ) = we get
3 m1 + m2 + m3
= ( me , mµ , mτ ) 1 for charged leptons = le = ( e, µ , τ ) .
k ( e ) k=
Calculation with observed values for basic particles yields [6] for the Koide
value for charged leptons, U-quarks, and D-quarks
=k ( e ) 0.9998,
= k ( u ) 1.2673,
= k ( d ) 1.0891

and for neutrinos with SU4PM calculated values


k (ν ) = 0.8654

The masses of the 3 generations of the basic particles of the Standard Model
are given in Table 38 below, where the neutrino masses are taken from the
SU(4)-preon calculation above, the remaining values are measured.

Table 38. Masses of the 3 generations of the basic particles of the Standard Model.

m1 m2 m3

neutrino (νe, νμ, ντ) 0.30 meV 11 meV 98 meV

ch.lepton (e, μ, τ) 0.511 MeV 106 MeV 1.78 GeV

u-quark (u, c, t) 2.3 MeV 1.34 GeV 171 GeV

d-quark (d, s, b ) 4.8 MeV 100 MeV 4.2 GeV

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Nan Li [28] gives the assessment for k(ν): 0.50 < k(ν) < 0.85, which is roughly
in agreement with the above value for k(ν).
The Koide formula is approximately k≈1 for all basic particles, with a devia-
tion of about 20% for neutrinos and u-quark generations.
In the SU(4)-preon model, the generations are due to the 3 configuration of
hc-bosons (hcb) Ni = (1, 4, 15) which are compatible with the symmetry of SU(4)
(are invariant under an automorphism subgroup).
We make an ansatz for the mass-energy of generations ui:
M ( u=
i) Eui + mui N i aui , where Eui is the non-hcb energy contribution, mui is
the first-generation-energy, aui is the hcb-exponent, and Ni = (1, 4, 15) is the
number of hcb’s in a generation i.
Fitting the mass table with this ansatz gives
Eu1 = −28.18 Eu 2 = −139.84 Eu 3 = −550.62 Eu 4 = −61.19
mu1 = 5.06 mu2 = 10.79 mu3 = 19.16 mu4 = 6.99
au1 = 1.11 au2 = 1.20 au3 = 1.50 au4 = 1.34
The resulting exponents aui vary from au1 = 1.11 for neutrinos to au3 = 1.50 for
u-quark generations with a mean
E(aui) = 1.292 and standard deviation Std(aui) = 0.1720.

If we approximate the mass formula M ( ui ) = mui N i aui neglecting the non-
hcb energy Eui, then the scale factor cancels out, and the Koide function depends
only on the exponent aui of the family (ui).
We get the following approximate values k’ for the Koide value k of the 4 fam-
ilies:
=k (ν ) 0.8106,
= k ( e ) 0.9177,
= k ( u ) 1.242,
= k ( d ) 1.091

which is a good approximation.


So we can conclude:
the approximate validity of the Koide formula k ≈ 1 for the 4 families is the
result of the power law of the generation mass hierarchy with the exponent aui ≈
1.3 approximately constant across the 4 families.

5.10. Assessment of the Quark and Lepton Mixing


It is possible to assess roughly the values of the CKM matrix for quark mixing
and the PMNS matrix for neutrino mixing based on the SU(4) preon model.
Quark mixing
In 4.5 we calculated the CKM 12-element for the d → u decay (Cabibbo angle)
as aC12 = 0.229, which agrees well with the experimental value. The calculation
for the other elements of the CKM matrix can be carried out correspondingly.
However, one can assess these elements roughly, based on the number of
hc-bosons per generation.
The particle configuration for the generations (=flavors) is
flavor 1: 1 hc-boson+2 preons e.g. A13 , rL − , rR − for electron e−
flavor 2: 4 complementary hc-bosons with conjugates +2 preons e.g.
A13, A13, A24, A 24 , rL − , rR − for electron e−

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J. Helm

flavor 3: all 15 hc-boson +2 preons


We expect naively that the coupling between generations scales roughly with
the Boltzmann factor (kB = 1)
 E0 N ( i )  N (i )
=ci , j C=
1 exp   C1 β
 T 
where N ( i ) = number of particles in i-th generation T the temperature and
C1 , β constants.
With β = 1.34 and C1 = 0.5 we get c1,2 = 0.206 c2,3 = 0.019
c1,3 = 0.0080 in comparison with CKM values ( 0.22,0.041,0.0035 )
Lepton mixing
With quarks, quark transformations run according to the scheme
q1 → q2 + W , with a W-boson, which consists of r-preons.
With electrons and neutrinos, transformations e → ν + X or ν → e + X
are impossible because of preon conservation.
Transformations between neutrino flavors ν i → ν j are described by the
 E0 N ( i ) 
PMNS matrix, according to the above formula ci , j = C1 exp   . Normal-
 T 
ly neutrinos have kinetic energies much higher than their rest mass, e.g. solar
neutrinos in MeV range, and m (ν ) ≈ E0 N ( i )  T , so the exponent is around
zero, and we expect the ci , j to be in the same range, which is the case.
Transformation between charged leptons with different flavors, e.g. µ → e + X
run with flavor conservation
µ → e + ν e + ν µ + ∆E or in preon formulation
( A13, A13, A24, A24 , rL − , rR − ) → ( A13 , rL − , rR − ) + ( A13 , rR − , rR + )
here
+ ( A13, A13, A24, A24 , rL − , rL + ) + ∆E
two hcb’s A13 A13 are emitted, rR − , rR +, rL − , rL + are created as pairs,
and A13, A13, A24, A24 are simply “passed”.
The flavor-violating transformation µ → e + ν e + ν e + ∆E is not forbidden by
conservation laws, but strongly suppressed in comparison to the flavor-conserving
transformation because of the very small neutrino mass.
In preon formulation
( A13, A13, A24, A24 , rL − , rR − )
→ ( A13 , rL − , rR − ) + ( A13 , rR − , rR + ) + ( A13, rL − , rL + ) + ∆E

In the inverse transformation, which is equivalent, the hcb quartet


A13, A13, A24, A24 with muon energies has to be emitted in the neutrino ν e . If
we assume the temperature of the neutrinos to be about in the order of the elec-
tron mass, the process will be suppressed by the Boltzmann factor
 4 E ( Aij , µ )   m(µ ) 
f ( µ → e + ν e + ν e=
) exp  −  ≈ exp  − 
 m (e)   m (e) 
 100 MeV 
=
exp  − = 1.0 × 10−85
 0.511 MeV 

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J. Helm

5.11. Deviations from the Standard Model


We can assess the deviation of the SU(4) hypercolor model from the standard
model by the energy ratio
 mc 2 
f dev =  ,
 Ehc 
where m is the mass of the corresponding particle, and Ehc = 180 GeV is the
hypercolor energy scale. As an example, let us consider the magnetic moment off
the muon, where we measure a deviation from the Standard model result [29].
Assessed deviation of the muon and electron magnetic moment
The muon mass is mµ = 105.6 MeV , the measured relative deviation
∆aµ 2.3
= = 1.2 × 10−6 [29], the assessed deviation of the muon magnetic
aµ 1855900
2
∆a  ∆r   ∆E 
2 2
∆aµ  mµ c 2 
moment ~  ~  , so ≈ 0.34 10−6 , which is in the
 =×
a  r   E  aµ  Ehc
 
scale of the measured deviation.
2
∆ae  me c 2 
For the electron we get the assessment ≈  = 8 × 10−12 , where the
ae  Ehc 
δ ae
current measurement precision is = 3 × 10−10 , well above the assessed devia-
ae
tion.

6. Weak Hadron Decays in the SU(4)-Preon Model


6.1. Neutron Decay
The neutron decay obeys the scheme dd → ud + e − + ν e , i.e. for free neutrons
n → p + e− + ν e (14)

with the mean lifetime of τ = 881.5 ± 1.5 s and energy ΔE = 0.782343 MeV
In the SM it is described by the interaction of a virtual W-boson
n → p + W − → p + e− + ν e (14a)

With the probability of about p = 0.001, an additional photon is emitted


n → p + W − → p + e− + ν e + γ

Currently, there is a “neutron lifetime puzzle”: the lifetime measured by pro-


ton-counting (beam-method lifetime τ1) yields τ2 = τ1 + 8 s, compared to the
bottle-method (lifetime τ2) of counting the remaining neutrons.
A possible explanation is the possibility of other decay channels for n.
In the SU4PM the decay proceeds as follows
d ( rR −, qL + ) → u ( rL +, qR + ) + W − ( rR −, rR − ) + Z q ( qL −, qL + ) (15)
d ( rL −, qR + ) → d ( rR −, qL + ) + Z L ( rL −, rL + ) + Z q ( qR −, qR + )

with the immediate decay W − ( rR −, rR − ) → e − ( rL −, rR − ) + ν e ( rR −, rR + ) and


the decay Z L ( rL −, rL + ) → ν e ( rL −, rL + ) + ν s1 ( rL +, rR − ) , i.e. the total reaction

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J. Helm

is n → p + e − + ν e + ν e + ν s1 , with the additional emission of a neutrino and a


sterile neutrino, which are undetectable and carry away a small fraction of the
total energy, ascribed to the antineutrino.
The neutrino and the antineutrino annihilate in a small fraction of events,
producing an additional photon.
The virtual Z q and Z q annihilate immediately and carry no energy away.

6.2. Transitions of Quarks


A quark can make a transformation, which swaps the chirality of its components.
This is seen at the example of a d-quark transition (16)
d ( rR −, qL + ) → d ( rL −, qR + ) + Z L ( rR −, rR + ) + Z q ( qL −, qL + )
→ d ( rL −, qR + ) + ν e ( rR −, rR + ) + ν q q ( L −, qL + )

d ( rR −, qL + ) → d ( rL −, qR + ) + Z L ( rR −, rR + ) + Z q ( qL −, qL + )
→ d ( rL −, qR + ) + ν e ( rR −, rR + ) + ν q ( qL −, qL + )

Both transitions take at least the energy ΔE = 23 MeV for the mass of ν q .
This transition can serve as an additional channel for the neutron decay:
n → n + ν e + ν e + ν q + ν q , which takes away ΔE = 2 × 23 MeV and makes fast
neutrons slow, making them undetectable by the usual scintillation method. This
would explain the “neutron lifetime puzzle”.

6.3. Pion Decay


The pion decay is the other major source of weak hadron decays, in the SM it is
described as
ud → e + + ν e (17)
In the SU4PM the decay proceeds as follows
u ( rR +, qL + ) → u ( rL +, qR + ) + Z L ( rR −, rR + ) + ν q ( qL −, qL + ) (18)
d ( rL +, qR − ) → u ( rR −, qL − ) + W + ( rL +, rL + ) + ν q ( qR −, qR + )
the virtual W-boson and ZL-boson decay into electron and neutrinos
W + ( rL +, rL + ) → e + ( rL +, rR + ) + ν e ( rL −, rL + )
Z L ( rR −, rR + ) → ν e ( rR −, rR + ) + ν s1 ( rL −, rR + )

so the overall reaction is (19)


u ( rR +, qL + ) + d ( rL +, qR − ) → u ( rL +, qR + ) + u ( rR −, qL − )
, i.e.
+ e+ ( rL +, rR + ) + ν e ( rL −, rL + ) + ν e ( rR −, rR + ) + ν s1 ( rL −, rR + )
ud → e + + ν e + ν e + ν s1 , the pion decays into an electron and antineutrino plus
the (undetectable) neutrino and sterile neutrino.

7. Conclusions
Formulation of the extended model
In the first three chapters we describe SU4PM, the extended SM.
The extension happens in four steps:

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J. Helm

-in chap.2: extending the Pauli-SU(2) weak interaction to SU(4)-hypercolor


interaction, which is renormalizable quantum gauge field theory, with confine-
ment and asymptotic freedom, with charges hc = (L−, L+, R−, R+).
Pauli-SU(2) weak interaction becomes then the Yukawa weak force of the
SU(4)-hypercolor interaction, after a spontaneous symmetry breaking of the
SU(4)-hc-interaction SU ( 4 ) = SU ( 2 )L ⊗ SU (1)R ⊗ SU (1)em .
-in chap.3: introducing sub-particles as constituents of basic particles of SM:
preons r and q with hc-charges, plus color-charge for q, with the parameters:
wave function Ψ =( u L − , u L + , u R − , u R + )
r-preons ( rL − , rL + , rR − , rR + ) , Q ( r ) = −1 2 , m ( r )  1 meV ,
q-preons ( qL − , qL + , qR − , qR + ) , Q ( q ) = +1 6 , m ( q ) ~ 1 MeV ,
Qcol ( q ) = ( r , g , b )
-in chap.4: adding a new powerful calculation method: direct minimization of
action. This calculation method was introduced in [4] [7] and applied success-
fully in QCD for calculation of hadrons.
-in chap.5: formulating the ansatz for wavefunctions.
The calculated results for energy-mass of basic particles are presented in
chap.5.
Systematics
The systematics is described at the example of charged leptons.
For each particle family (generations), are presented:
-preon configuration and hc-boson configuration
  rL −   rR −  
Preon configuration: u =    ,0,   ,0 
 0   0  
Boson configuration: flavor = 1: ( A13 = λ 4 ) , flavor = 2:
( A13 λ=
= 4, A13 λ= 5, A24 λ11,
= A24 λ12 )
flavor = 3: all 15 bosons
-calculated and observed mass

m (e) m (mu) m (tau)


exp. 0.511 MeV 106 MeV 1.78 GeV
calc. 0.293 ± 0.22 MeV 228 ± 150 MeV 2.26 ± 0.7 GeV

-energy distribution for three generations

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J. Helm

-spatial preon configuration in ( r ,θ ) :

Mass hierarchy and the Koide formula


If we take for the neutrinos the calculated values, and for the rest the observed
values, we get the following mass table for leptons and quarks

m1 m2 m3
neutrino (νe, νμ, ντ) 0.30 meV 11 meV 98 meV
electron (e, μ, τ) 0.511 MeV 106 MeV 1.78 GeV
u-quark (u, c, t) 2.3 MeV 1.34 GeV 171 GeV
d-quark (d, s, b ) 4.8 MeV 100 MeV 4.2 GeV

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J. Helm

( )
2
2 m1 + m2 + m3
The Koide formula
= [28] k ( m1 , m2 , m3 ) ≈ 1 is ap-
3 m1 + m2 + m3
proximately valid for the generations (1, 2, 3) of basic particles. The precise values
are k(ν) = 0.8654, k(e) = 0.9998, k(u) = 1.2673, k(d) = 1.0891 for the four basic
families neutral leptons, charged leptons, u-quarks, d-quarks.
There is an approximate scaling law for the generation mass scale.
We make an ansatz for the mass-energy of generations ui:
M ( u=
i) Eui + mui N i aui , where Eui is the non-hcb energy contribution, mui is
the first-generation-energy, aui is the hcb-exponent, and Ni = (1, 4, 15) is the
number of hcb’s in a generation i.
Fitting the formula yields the exponents au1 = 1.11 au2 = 1.20 au3 = 1.50
au4 = 1.34 , so aui ≈ 1.3 .
We have the result: the approximate validity of the Koide formula k ≈ 1 for
the 4 families is the result of the power law of the generation mass hierarchy
with the exponent aui ≈ 1.3 approximately constant across the 4 families.
Calculated and observed masses of basic SM particles
Leptons and pure quarks

m (e) m (mu) m (tau)


exp. 0.511 MeV 106 MeV 1.78 GeV
calc. 0.293 ± 0.22 MeV 228 ± 150 MeV 2.26 ± 0.7 GeV
m (nue) m (num) m (nut)
exp.
calc. 0.30 meV 11 meV 98 meV
m (u) m (c) m (t)
exp. 2.3 MeV 1.34 GeV 171 GeV
calc. 2.35 ± 0.26 MeV 3.2 ± 1.87 GeV 163 ± 55 GeV
m (d) m (s) m (b)
exp. 4.8 MeV 100 MeV 4.2 GeV
calc. 4.58 ± 0.3 MeV 149 ± 15 MeV 6.1 ± 2.9 GeV

dC = Cabibbo-mixed d-quark

m (dC), α (C)
exp. 4.8 MeV, 13.04˚
calc. 4.74 MeV, 13.1˚

Weak massive bosons W, Z0, H (higgs), ZL (weakly interacting left-chiral


Z-boson)

m (W) m (Z0) m (ZL) m (H)


exp. 80.4 GeV 91.2 GeV 125.1 GeV
calc. 89 GeV 97 GeV 91 GeV 125 GeV

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J. Helm

new weakly interacting particles


sterile neutrinos νs1, νs2, νs3;
strong neutrinos νqe νqm νqt
strong bosons Zq Hq

m (nus1) m (nus2) m (nus3)


exp.
calc. 0.09 meV 3.6 meV 100 meV
m (nuqe) m (nuqm) m (nuqt)
exp.
calc. 23.2 MeV 205 MeV 2.4 GeV
m (Zq) m (Hq)
exp.
calc. 644 GeV 637 GeV

Structure of basic SM particles


Symmetry and inner structure of particles is determined by the spatial distri-
bution of preons.
Length is specified in units r0 = 0.2 × 10−18 m
Mean location (r(gi), θ(gi)) of preons in generation i = 1, 2, 3

r (g1) r (g2) r (g3) θ (g1) θ (g2) θ (g3)


e 0.25 0.35 0.5
ν 0.9 1. 1.1
u 0, 0.3 0.1, 0.3 0.6, 0.6 0, π/6
d 0, 0.3 0, 0.3 0.1, 0.5
dC 0.3, 0.8 0, π/8

Structure characteristics
We have the following structure characteristics:
-charged leptons (e, μ, τ) are spherically symmetric, with increasing radii (0.25,
0.35, 0.5)
-neutral leptons (νe, νμ, ντ) are spherically symmetric, with roughly equal ra-
dius ≈ 1
-pure u-quarks (u, c, t) have double-peaked structure with increasing radii ((0,
0.3), (0.1, 0.3), (0.6, 0.6)), the first two are spherically symmetric, and only the
t-quark is slightly axial θ = (0, π/6)
-pure d-quarks (d, s, b) have double-peaked structure with increasing radii ((0,
0.3), (0, 0.3), (0.1, 0.5)), and are spherically symmetric
-Cabibbo-mixed d-quark dC has double-peaked structure (0.3, 0.8) and is
slightly axial θ = (0, π/8)
Consequences from the calculated structure

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J. Helm

-Cabibbo-mixing breaks the spherical symmetry


The observed first generation quarks (uC, dC) are Cabibbo-mixed with the
CKM matrix, the higher generation quarks can be considered as approximately
pure.
Cabibbo-mixing breaks the spherical symmetry, as shown for dC, and makes
both first-generation quarks (uC, dC) axial.
-neutrino-mixing with large angles
Neutrino generations are one-peaked spherically symmetric, with approx-
imately equal radius. Therefore it is plausible that mixing by PMNS matrix is
easy, i.e. with large angles (neutrino oscillations).
-comparison of PMNS and CKM matrix
Quark mixing by CKM matrix is of type ( u , c, t ) × ( d , s, b ) , where the first list
labels the rows and the second list labels the columns, i.e. it is “partner-oriented”
mixing.
Neutrino mixing by PMNS matrix is of type (ν e ,ν µ ,ν τ ) × (ν e ,ν µ ,ν τ ) , i.e. it is
“self-oriented” mixing.
Partner-oriented mixing of leptons according to the CKM scheme is not al-
lowed (or energetically unfavorable), because neutrinos are chiral, and electrons
are not.
Self-oriented mixing of quarks is allowed, but energetically unfavorable, which
could be shown numerically by calculating a combination of both mixing
schemes.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this pa-
per.

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