write a detailed humanised academic psychology practical report in

easy words on the topic of memory with the aim of the role of
imagery in memory while containing the following content and
subtopics from the given references
1. aim - the role of imagery on memory
2. write an introduction in 10,000 words while including the
following subsections
a. write about memory (from Baron, R. A., & Misra, G. (2014).
Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson Education.)
b. write about three processes in memory - encoding, storage, and
retrieval (Ciccarelli, S. K., Meyer, G. E., & Misra, G. (2013).
Psychology: South Asian Edition.
NewDelhi: Pearson Education)
c. define imagery
d. explain abstract and concrete imagery
e. explain models of memory 1. information processing model (in
detail), 2. parallel distributed processing model, 3. levels of
processing model (from Ciccarelli, S. K., Meyer, G. E., & Misra, G.
(2013). Psychology: South Asian Edition.
NewDelhi: Pearson Education)
f. write about forgetting ( from Ciccarelli, S. K., Meyer, G. E., &
Misra, G. (2013). Psychology: South Asian Edition.
NewDelhi: Pearson Education)
g. explain theories of forgetting (from Ciccarelli, S. K., Meyer, G. E.,
& Misra, G. (2013). Psychology: South Asian Edition.
NewDelhi: Pearson Education)
h. write about strategies to improve memory (from Ciccarelli, S. K.,
Meyer, G. E., & Misra, G. (2013). Psychology: South Asian Edition.
NewDelhi: Pearson Education)
3. write a review of literature in paragraph in 5000 words ( include 6
studies from genuine cites)
(Include the following research papers from the citations provided:
Baddeley, A., & Andrade, J. (2000). Working memory and the
vividness of imagery. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,
129(1), 126–145.
Bower, G. H. (1972). Mental imagery and associative learning.
Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 5, 51–90.
Holmes, E. A., Arntz, A., & Smucker, M. R. (2009). Imagery
rescripting in cognitive behavioural therapy: Images, treatment
techniques, and outcomes. Journal of Behavior Therapy and
Experimental Psychiatry, 38(4), 297–305.
Nelson, D. L., & Reed, V. S. (1976). The effects of imagery on
recognition memory: A study of individual differences. Memory &
Cognition, 4(4), 428–434.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.
Richardson, J. T. E. (1977). Mental imagery and human memory.
British Journal of Psychology, 68(1), 83–94.)
4. Hypothesis –

Hypothesis 1 - Learning will be faster for C-C word pair combination

as compared to A-A word pair.
Hypothesis 2- Learning will be faster for experimental condition as
compared to the control condition.

5. Research design
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques
choosen by a researcher. A research design is a strategy for answering
your research question using empirical data. A well-planned research
design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives
and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data. It includes
the blueprint for the collection, measurement & analysis of the data.
The design used in this study is Within subject design because we
are using same participant in control as well as experimental
conditions. In a within subject group design all participants take part
in every condition. It is the opposite of a between-subject design,
where each participant experiences only one condition. A within
subject design is also called a repeated measures design because same
participant is taking part in all the experimental conditions.
In this experiment the participant is exposed to the control as well as
experimental conditions. In control condition (List A), the participant
has to read the words in the list loudly and later on only the left side is
shown and the participant has to recall the word on the right side. In
the experimental condition (List B), the participant is shown another
list of words but the instructions are that now along with reading the
words loudly they have to form bizarre imagery. After this the left
word in the pair is shown and the participant has to recall the right
word. This is how within subject design is used in the study.
We have used 4 pairs of words (CC, CA, AC, AA) in both the
conditions and both the lists includes 16 pairs of words each. We have
conducted total 3 trials for both the conditions. In this study we have
used pair associate learning and also, we have taken one male or one
female in the age group of 18-25 years.
Table 1
Control Condition Experimental
(List A) Condition (List B)
No. of Categories C-C, C-A, A-C, A-A C-C, C-A, A-C,A-A
No. of words/ 4 4
Categories
Total no. of words 16 16
Imagery Instructions No Instructions Bizarre Imagery
Instructions
Trials 3 3
Criteria of Learning Paired Associate Paired Associate
 Learning Learning

6. sample
Every individual conducted experiment on one participant (either
male or female) in the age group of 18-25 years. Simple random
sampling was used for data collection. A simple random sample is a
randomly selected subset of a population. In this sampling method,
each member of the population has an exactly equal chance of being
selected. This method is the most straightforward of all the probability
sampling methods, since it only involves a single random selection
and requires little advance knowledge about the population.

7. variables of study
Independent Variable- In the experiment, independent variables are
list of words and instructions given to the participant.
Dependent Variable- In the experiment, the dependent variable is
recall of the words.
Control Variable- In the experiment, control variables are size of the
words (5-9 letters), no. of words, presentation of words-Font size
(44), Font style (Arial), Time Interval (4 seconds), Concreteness
( mean of I & C b/w 5-7) and Abstractness ( mean of I & C b/w 1-3)
of words. No. of trials (3), environmental factors- Temperature, Noise,
Age of the subject (18-25 years).

8. preliminaries
Age- 19
Gender- male
Educational Qualification- undergrad student
Place of Conduction- lab
Date & time of Conduction-

9. materials required
Allan Paivio’s word list
Graph
Laptop (Slides)
Paper
Pen/Pencil
Calculator

10. rapport formation

Participant was called into the lab and was made comfortable.
Rapport was formed in order to ease the anxiety of the subject and
motivate the participant for the test. The participant was made to sit in
a quiet, comfortable and well-lit room and was provided with water.
Some generic questions were asked like ‘how are you feeling today?
Are you excited for the experiment? Etc. The preliminary information
is also collected during this time. Personal and direct questions were
avoided to not make participant feel uncomfortable or anxious. The
participant was briefed about the study and the consent of the
participant was taken. The participant was asked if she/he had any
doubts about the experiment and before starting the experiment all the
doubts were clarified. After that instructions were read out and the
practical was started.

11. instructions
For List A 1- ‘Now I will be showing you a list of word pairs for a
brief period of time on this screen. As you see each word pair, please
read it out loudly.
For List A 2- ‘Now I will be showing you the left side of the word of
each word pair which you have previously seen. Try to recall the
right-hand side of the word there (pointing to the word on the screen).
For List B 1- ‘Now I will be showing you another list of word pairs.
In your mind try to form bizarre imagery between the word pair in
your mind’. For example, for pair animal-democracy imagine an
animal talking about democracy.
For List B 2 – ‘Now I will be showing you the left side of the word of
each word pair which you have previously seen. Try to recall the
right-hand side of the word there (pointing to the word on the
screen)’.

12. administration (explain the administration process in 300 words)

The administration process involved creating a comfortable
environment for the participant, establishing rapport, and clearly
communicating the experimental instructions. Upon entering the lab,
the participant was made comfortable with casual conversation and
offered water. The preliminary information was collected to ease any
tension. Once the participant was relaxed, consent was obtained, and
the participant was briefed about the experiment's purpose and
procedures. Any questions or concerns were addressed before starting
the experiment. This helped ensure the participant’s understanding
and comfort, thereby maximizing the reliability of the data collected.
The instructions were given clearly and concisely to avoid any
misunderstandings. The experiment started only after the participant
expressed clarity and readiness.

16. results

table 2- Showing list A with the number and percentage of correct

responses (controlled condition)
 Categor Word Trial Tria Tria No. of Percentag
y pairs 1 l2 l3 Correc e of
t recall correct
recall
1 c-c Abdomen- 2 66.66
alcohol
2 c-c Alligator - 2 66.66
ambulanc
e
3 c-c Amplifier- 1 33.33
ankle
4 c-c Angle- 1 33.33
animal
5 c-a Dress- 3 100
ability
6 c-a Diamond - 2 66.66
Advantag
e
7 c-a Doctor- 0 0
adversity
8 c-a Dollar- 3 100
afterlife
9 a-c Chance- 1 33.33
child
1 a-c Irony- 1 33.33
0 lemon
11 a-c Necessity- 2 66.66
newspaper
1 a-c Unreality- 2 66.66
2 women
1 a-a Situation- 0 0
3 theory
1 a-a Truth- 0 0
4 thought
1 a-a Method- 1 33.33
5 mastery
1 a-a Essence- 0 0
6 belief

table 3- Showing list B with the number and percentage of correct

responses (experimental condition)

category Word-pair Trial Trial Trial Correc Percentage

1 2 3 t recall of correct
recall
1 c-c Arrow- 3 100
artist
2 c-c Banker- 3 100
bottle
3 c-c Elephant- 3 100
earth
4 c-c Footwear- 3 100
forehead
5 c-a Palace- 3 100
attitude
6 c-a Paper- 3 100
intellect
7 c-a Person- 2 66.66
deduction
8 c-a Piano- 3 100
democracy
9 a-c Aptitude- 2 66.66
basement
10 a-c Allegory- 3 100
book
11 a-c Abasement- 3 100
blood
12 a-c Knowledge 2 66.66
-beverage
13 a-c Instance- 2 66.66
 tendency
14 a-a Rating- 0 0
temerity
15 a-a Outcome- 1 33.33
folly
16 a-a Moment- 1 33.33
fallacy

Table 4 – showing the combined result of categories in both the

conditions
categori List a List b
es
C-C (66.66+66.66+33.33+33.33)/ (100+100+100+100)/
4= 49.99 4=100
C-A (100+66.66+0+100)/4=66.66 (100+100+66.66+100)/
4=91.66
A-C (33.33+33.33+66.66+66.66)/ (66.66+100+100+66.66)/
4=49.99 4=83.33
A-A (0+0+33.33+0)/4=8.33 (66.66+0+33.33+33.33)/
4=33.33

Table 5 - Showing the combined result of controlled and experimental

condition

categories List a List b combined

C-C 49.99 100 (49.99+100)/2=74.99
C-A 66.66 91.66 (66.66+91.66)/2=49.16
A-C 49.99 83.33 (49.99+83.33)/2=66.66
A-A 8.33 33.33 (8.33+33.33)/2=20.83

17. generate a bar diagram

(Graph 1 of Table 5 Showing the percentage of correct recall in
controlled and experimental condition)

18. interpretation and discussion

Write in 5,000 words in the following format and use other studies to
describe the results-
(The aim of the experiment was to study the role of imagery in
memory. The hypothesis was to see if learning will be faster for C-C
(concrete - concrete) word pair combination and if the stimulus
response combination constructed from high imagery and low
imagery would be learned in the following manner. C-C> C-A > A-C
>A-A. Another hypothesis was to see if recall would be better under
the experimental conditions where interactive imagery instructions
were given as compared to the controlled conditions where no
instructions were given. The participant was asked to feel
comfortable. The experiment was conducted in a well lit and noise
free environment. A brief conversation was undertaken with her so as
to build a rapport. The subject was then given the instructions .The
preliminaries were taken and the experiment was then conducted.
Some precautions were taken.
The participant reported highest percentage of accurate responses for
concreteconcrete (93.75%) and the least for abstract-abstract (50%).
But the percentage of accurate responses for concrete abstract
(56.25%) and for abstract- concrete (56.25%) is the same. (See table
3). The first hypothesis that C-C> C-A > A-C >A-A is hence partially
accepted. Probably the recall % of C-A and A-C is equal because of
chance factor. The subject also mentioned that she was tired because
of a long day in college, so probably restlessness contributed in
similar recall.
The second hypothesis was to see if recall would be better under the
experimental conditions where interactive imagery instructions were
given as compared to the controlled conditions where no instructions
were given. The present experiment has accepted this hypothesis as in
the controlled condition the % of correct responses of CC is 87.5 %
and 100% in the experimental condition. The % of correct responses
of CA is 37.5 % in controlled condition and 75% in the experimental
condition. Then, the % of correct responses of AC is 50% in
controlled condition and 62.5% in the experimental condition.
Similarly, the % of correct responses of AA is 12.5% in controlled
condition and 87.5% in the experimental condition. (Table 3)
Both the hypothesis are validated by previous researches and
experiments. According to Richardson (1998) paired-associate form
of learning leads to the most effective form of learning. It also leads to
higher performance in recall.
According to the dual coding hypothesis by Paivio (1971) there are
two memory systems i.e. visual spatial and verbal symbolic system.
When the subject attempted to memorize the words like the concrete
word pairs she must have made a visual image of the same in her
mind. So when she was recalling then she must have got the memory
of the picture and description of that concrete object word. So
according to this hypothesis pictures are more likely to be recalled
than words. Probably this is the reason why in the experimental
condition the recall was better and regarding hypothesis 1, the recall
of concrete- concrete word pairs was highest.
Morris & Steven (1974) found that some of their subjects reported
that imagery did improve recall but for others it did not. The reason
for the same was that the imagery recall improved due to the
instructions which were given to the subjects to imagine. They had
divided subjects in two groups. One group was told to link together
images at the same time and the other group was told to form one
image at a time. There was improvement in recall when images were
linked together rather than one at a time.
Saltz (1981) studied that visual imagery and motor enactment help in
better retention of the materials presented rather when the material is
presented only in a verbal form. This can indicate why the learning
was not more accurate for the second list in which instructions for
imagery were given as the instructions were only verbal in nature.
Marschark (1998) reported that the effects of imagery and the
concreteness on memory result from the different processing of the
distinctive and the relational information from the high imagery and
the low imagery materials. Ruediger (1980) found that forming single
images lead to better immediate recall than rote learning but not when
no strategy was specified. In this case, the subject was instructed to
use this strategy of imagining the pair of words.)

19. Limitations
a. Small Sample size makes it difficult to generalize .
b.Social context is limited.
c.Age group is also restricted .
d.Practice effect can influence results .

20. references in APA format 7th edition.

INTRO

Introduction
Memory: The Foundation of Cognitive Function
Memory is a critical cognitive process that underpins all aspects of
human thought, learning, and daily functioning. It allows us to
remember past experiences, learn new information, and adapt to our
environment. Psychologists have studied memory extensively to
understand how we acquire, retain, and retrieve information.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) was one of the first to empirically
investigate memory, laying the groundwork for modern cognitive
psychology by exploring the processes of learning and forgetting.
Ebbinghaus’s research highlighted the concept of the "forgetting
curve," which showed how information retention declines over time,
providing early insights into the transient nature of memory.
Memory is evident in various everyday activities, from recalling
where you left your keys to remembering the names of past
acquaintances. These memory tasks can be categorized into short-
term memory (STM), which involves holding a limited amount of
information temporarily, and long-term memory (LTM), which stores
vast amounts of information over extended periods. For example,
remembering a phone number involves STM, while recalling a
childhood memory activates LTM. This distinction underscores the
different capacities and durations of various memory systems.
Understanding memory is not only essential for cognitive psychology
but also for enhancing learning and improving cognitive function.
This introduction aims to explore memory's core processes, including
encoding, storage, and retrieval, and delve into the role of imagery
within these processes. Additionally, it will examine how models of
memory and theories of forgetting provide a deeper understanding of
the memory system. By integrating concepts of abstract and concrete
imagery and strategies to enhance memory, this introduction aims to
offer a comprehensive overview of the mechanisms underlying human
memory.

The Three Processes in Memory: Encoding, Storage, and

Retrieval
Memory operates through three interrelated processes: encoding,
storage, and retrieval. Each process is crucial for effective memory
function and serves to maintain, transform, and access information
over time.
1. Encoding
Encoding is the initial process through which new information is
perceived and converted into a format that can be stored within
the brain. This process involves the sensory perception of
stimuli and the subsequent transformation of these perceptions
 into neural codes. For example, seeing a red apple involves
encoding its color, shape, and texture. Craik and Lockhart’s
Levels of Processing Theory (1972) posits that the depth of
processing during encoding significantly affects memory
retention. According to their theory, semantic encoding
(processing information based on its meaning) leads to stronger
memories compared to shallow processing, such as visual or
acoustic encoding. This can be illustrated by considering the
difference between merely seeing a word ("apple") and
associating it with personal experiences (e.g., visualizing biting
into an apple on a hot day).
2. Storage
Storage is the process of maintaining information over time.
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin's (1968) multi-store
model, information passes through three distinct stages: sensory
memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory
(LTM). Sensory memory acts as a brief holding area for all
sensory inputs before they fade unless attention is paid to them.
STM, with its limited capacity of around seven items, is where
active information processing occurs. For instance,
remembering a new phone number involves retaining it in STM
long enough to rehearse it before committing it to LTM. LTM,
with its vast storage capacity, can hold information indefinitely.
Information in LTM can be permanent, such as the memory of a
favorite song from childhood, or transient, such as a temporary
address for a move. The multi-store model emphasizes the
sequential nature of memory processing, from encoding to
storage, and finally retrieval.
3. Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of accessing stored information when
needed. This process can be influenced by the nature of the
information and the cues available for recall. Effective retrieval
depends on the strength of the encoding process and the
presence of appropriate retrieval cues. For instance, a cue like a
particular scent or sound can trigger a memory of an old
vacation. Tulving’s Encoding Specificity Principle (1972)
asserts that memory retrieval is most successful when the
context or cues present at the time of retrieval match those
present at the time of encoding. This principle is exemplified by
the "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon, where a person feels they
know something but cannot quite retrieve it. Retrieval can also
be influenced by interference—when the presence of similar
memories makes it harder to recall the desired information. For
example, learning a new language might interfere with recalling
vocabulary from a previously learned one.
(Memory works through three important steps: encoding,
storage, and retrieval. Each step is necessary for effective
memory and helps us keep, change, and access information
over time.

1. **Encoding**
Encoding is the first step. It’s how we take in new
information and change it into a form our brain can store.
This involves using our senses to understand things and
turning those experiences into neural codes. For example, if
you see a red apple, you encode its color, shape, and texture.
According to Craik and Lockhart’s Levels of Processing
Theory (1972), how deeply we process information during
encoding affects how well we remember it. They suggest that
thinking about the meaning of the information (semantic
encoding) helps create stronger memories than just seeing or
hearing it (shallow processing). For instance, remembering
the word "apple" is easier if you think of a time you bit into
one on a hot day.

2. **Storage**
Storage is how we keep information over time. Atkinson and
Shiffrin's (1968) multi-store model explains that information
goes through three stages: sensory memory, short-term
memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Sensory
memory holds new sensory inputs for a brief moment before
we forget them unless we pay attention. STM can hold about
seven items and is where we actively work with information.
For example, when you learn a new phone number, you keep
it in STM so you can rehearse it before moving it to LTM.
LTM has a huge capacity and can hold memories
indefinitely. Some memories, like a favorite childhood song,
are permanent, while others, like a temporary address, may
fade. The multi-store model highlights how memory
processes go from encoding to storage and then retrieval.

3. **Retrieval**
Retrieval is how we access stored information when we need
it. This process depends on what we are trying to remember
and the cues we have to help us recall it. Good retrieval
relies on how well we encoded the information and whether
we have the right cues. For example, a specific scent or
sound might remind you of a past vacation. Tulving’s
Encoding Specificity Principle (1972) says it's easier to recall
memories when the context at the time of recall matches the
context during encoding. This is seen in the "tip-of-the-
tongue" phenomenon when you feel you know something
but can’t quite get it out. Retrieval can also be affected by
interference, where similar memories make it hard to
remember the information you want. For instance, learning
a new language might make it difficult to recall words from
a language you learned earlier.)
Memory consists of three main processes: encoding, storage, and
retrieval.

**Encoding**
The first process, encoding, involves converting sensory information,
like what we see or hear, into a form the brain can understand. This
includes various mental actions that transform sensory input into
something that can be stored in the brain. For example, when we hear
a sound, our ears convert the vibrations in the air into signals for the
brain, allowing it to make sense of that sound. It’s important to note
that encoding varies between different memory systems. In some
systems, it may require repeating information to remember it, while in
others, it may involve reflecting more deeply on the meaning of the
information.

**Storage**
The next process is storage, which means keeping the encoded
information for a certain amount of time. The duration of storage
varies depending on the memory system used. In some cases,
information is retained only for a short time—about 20 seconds—
while in others, it can be stored for much longer, potentially
permanently.

**Retrieval**
The final process is retrieval, which can be challenging for many
people. Retrieval refers to accessing the information that has been
stored. For instance, someone might finish an essay exam and later
recall extra points that could have been included. These retrieval
challenges are discussed in more detail in a later section of this
chapter.
Defining Imagery: A Mental Representation
Imagery refers to the mental representation of sensory experiences in
the absence of physical stimuli. It involves creating internal pictures,
sounds, or sensations based on past experiences. Imagery is a
powerful cognitive tool that enhances memory encoding and retrieval.
Paivio’s Dual-Coding Theory (1971) suggests that memory is
enhanced when both verbal (word-based) and visual (image-based)
codes are used. For instance, remembering the word "apple" is easier
if you can visualize an apple or think of related concepts, such as
"red" or "fruit." This theory is supported by numerous studies
showing that concrete words (words that represent tangible objects)
are remembered better than abstract words (words representing
intangible concepts), due to the richness of their imagery.
Imagery provides a bridge between abstract and concrete information.
Abstract imagery, such as imagining a concept like "freedom" or
"justice," is less vivid and more challenging to encode. Concrete
imagery, like picturing a specific object or event, engages multiple
senses, making it easier to remember. This distinction is crucial in
educational contexts where abstract concepts are often hard to learn
due to their lack of sensory richness. Paivio (1971) demonstrated that
paired-associate learning (learning pairs of words like "apple-tree") is
more effective when the words are concrete and easily visualizable.
This is because the mental image can serve as a strong mnemonic
device, aiding in the recall process.
The difference between abstract and concrete imagery is important in
cognitive psychology, especially when we look at how memory
works. Let’s break down these concepts:

### Concrete Imagery

Concrete imagery refers to mental images of things that we can see
and touch—objects or situations that are vivid and clear in our minds.
For example, when someone says "apple," we can easily picture a red,
round fruit. This type of imagery is easier for our brains to handle
because it relates to our actual experiences.

According to Allan Paivio's Dual Coding Theory, which he proposed

in 1971, concrete words can be remembered better because they can
be processed through two pathways: verbally (like saying the word
‘apple’) and visually (seeing the image of the fruit). This duality
creates multiple ways to remember the information. Studies have
shown that concrete imagery makes it easier to remember things
because it activates strong areas of the brain that we use for visual
processing.

### Abstract Imagery

On the other hand, abstract imagery involves ideas or concepts that
are not linked to specific physical objects. Words like "justice,"
"freedom," or "truth" are examples of abstract concepts. These words
are tough to visualize because they don’t have a clear physical form.

When we think of abstract concepts, our brains rely mainly on verbal

information rather than visual images. Since these concepts don’t
create vivid mental pictures, they often don't benefit from the same
memory-enhancing processes as concrete imagery. This means that
when we hear abstract words, we may find them harder to remember
because they depend mostly on language and don’t have those strong
visual associations.

In summary, concrete imagery is tied to tangible experiences that our

minds can easily visualize, helping us remember things better.
Abstract imagery involves more complex ideas that don’t have clear
images, making them more challenging to remember.
Models of Memory
Several theoretical models have been developed to explain how
memory works, each offering a unique perspective on the processes
involved.
1. The Information Processing Model
The information processing model likens human memory to the
operations of a computer, emphasizing sequential processing.
This model consists of three primary components: sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Information enters the sensory memory through the sensory
organs and is then selected and transferred to STM, where it is
processed and rehearsed. If not effectively rehearsed, it is
quickly lost. Successful encoding into LTM occurs through
processes like rehearsal and elaboration. For instance, when
studying for an exam, information is first perceived through
visual and auditory channels, then rehearsed (encoded) into
STM through repetition, and finally stored in LTM through
meaningful association and practice. Retrieval from LTM
involves bringing this information back into STM when needed,
such as recalling a formula during a test.

Information processing theory

This focuses on how humans process information. The first stage is
the sensory memory which does the initial screening of the stimuli. It
deals with the information which comes from the senses. It helps
decide which stimuli is important enough to be attended to. It has a
very limited capacity in duration. It can handle 3-7 units of
information for 1-3 seconds before information is forgotten. Sensory
memory is like a filter. Then the next stage is the working memory. It
consists of that information which has got attention. It provides for
temporary storage and manipulation of information. The capacity and
duration of working memory is more than the sensory memory. It can
hold 7 (plus or minus 2 ) chunks of information. The brain groups the
information and therefore the word chunks is being used. On average
it can hold information for 5-15 seconds but the process of rehearsal
comes in which means manipulation of the information stored in the
working memory. Maintenance and elaborative rehearsal are the two
kinds. In maintenance rehearsal the information to be stored in the
memory is repeated over and over again but elaborative rehearsal
involves attaching some form of meaning to the information. The
latter helps in better storage of information in the long term memory
as compared to the former. The long term memory provides for
permanent storage of the information. It is assumed to have infinite
capacity and duration. Accessing information from the LTM is called
retrieval.
2. The Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model
The PDP model differs from the sequential nature of the
information processing model. It proposes that memory is a
result of the simultaneous activation of many interconnected
nodes within a neural network. McClelland and Rumelhart’s
PDP model (1986) posits that memories are stored across a vast
network of interconnected neurons. When one part of the
network is activated, other related parts are also activated,
facilitating rapid and parallel processing. This model can explain
phenomena like learning and generalization more naturally than
the sequential model. For instance, recognizing a person’s face
involves accessing a network of visual and emotional memories
connected to that person’s image, allowing for quicker and more
flexible retrieval.
3. The Levels of Processing Model
Craik and Lockhart’s Levels of Processing Theory (1972)
introduces a framework where the depth of processing
influences memory. This theory suggests that deeper, more
meaningful processing of information leads to better memory
retention. Shallow processing involves rote repetition and
maintenance rehearsal (e.g., reading a list of words without
 connecting them to each other or to personal experiences), while
deep processing involves elaborative rehearsal—linking the
information to existing knowledge or personal experiences (e.g.,
associating the words with personal memories). This is akin to
reading a list of words and then thinking about how they relate
to one’s own life. For instance, remembering the word "apple" is
more likely if you associate it with recent activities like eating
an apple pie. This model emphasizes the importance of
engagement with the material for long-term retention.

Forgetting: A Natural Part of Memory

Forgetting is a normal cognitive phenomenon that affects all
individuals to varying degrees. It involves the inability to retrieve
information that was previously stored in memory. Forgetting is not
necessarily a sign of a weak memory but can be adaptive, helping to
discard irrelevant or outdated information. Ebbinghaus’s forgetting
curve illustrates this concept by showing how quickly memories
degrade over time without reinforcement or retrieval. For example,
forgetting what you learned in a seminar after a few weeks reflects the
natural decline in memory retention.

Theories of Forgetting
Several theories attempt to explain why we forget information.
1. Decay Theory
Decay theory suggests that memory fades with the passage of
time if not accessed or used. The memory trace, which is the
physical or chemical change in the brain associated with a
memory, weakens over time. For instance, forgetting a friend’s
phone number might occur because the neural pathways
associated with that number have weakened. This theory is
supported by studies showing that memory loss occurs more
 quickly immediately after learning and then slows down over
time.
2. Interference Theory
Interference theory proposes that forgetting is due to the
competition between new and old memories. There are two
types of interference: proactive and retroactive. Proactive
interference occurs when previous memories interfere with the
ability to learn new information, such as having trouble
remembering your new email password because of a similar old
one. Retroactive interference happens when new learning disrupts
the recall of old memories, such as forgetting earlier learned facts
after learning new ones. Both types of interference demonstrate that
memories are not always easy to retrieve because they compete for
mental resources.
3. Retrieval Failure
Retrieval failure occurs when information is stored in memory
but cannot be accessed due to the absence of appropriate cues.
For example, you might remember a person’s name but struggle
to recall it without the right context or prompt. This theory
suggests that retrieval cues—external clues that prompt memory
retrieval—are critical for accessing stored information.
Tulving’s Encoding Specificity Principle (1972) states that
memory retrieval is most successful when the conditions present
at the time of encoding match those present at the time of
retrieval. For instance, recalling a childhood memory is easier if
the current environment resembles the past setting.

Strategies to Improve Memory

While forgetting is a natural part of memory, there are strategies to
enhance memory and improve recall.
1. Mnemonic Devices
Mnemonic devices are tools that aid memory by organizing
 information into easily retrievable formats. These can be
acronyms, rhymes, or visual images. For example, creating an
acronym like "HOMES" to remember the Great Lakes (Huron,
Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior) is a common mnemonic
strategy. Such devices simplify complex information into
memorable units, making it easier to retain and recall.
2. Visualization and Imagery
Creating vivid mental images can enhance memory retention.
Imagery involves mentally visualizing information or linking it
to existing knowledge. For instance, visualizing a specific scene
while reading a text can help cement the information in memory,
making it easier to retrieve later. Paivio’s Dual-Coding Theory
supports this, suggesting that information encoded both visually
and verbally is more readily remembered.
3. Chunking
Chunking is a memory strategy that involves grouping
information into smaller, manageable units. This strategy
capitalizes on the brain’s ability to remember larger pieces of
information by breaking them into chunks. For example,
remembering a 10-digit phone number is easier if you chunk it
into smaller groups, like (123) 456-7890. Chunking allows for
more efficient use of short-term memory, reducing cognitive
overload and facilitating better recall.
4. Elaborative Rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal involves associating new information with
existing knowledge to enhance retention. By relating new
material to something you already know, it becomes more
meaningful and easier to remember. For example, connecting
new vocabulary words to familiar concepts in your native
language can make them more memorable.
5. Spaced Practice
Spaced practice, or distributed learning, involves spreading out
study sessions over time rather than cramming all at once. This
 technique capitalizes on the spacing effect, which shows that
retention is better when information is learned in multiple
sessions over time rather than in a single marathon study
session. For example, reviewing material daily for a week
before an exam is more effective than cramming it all the night
before.
By understanding these strategies and how they interact with the
processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval, we can optimize
memory and improve cognitive functioning. Imagery, in particular,
serves as a powerful tool to enhance memory through its capacity to
create vivid mental representations that facilitate both encoding and
retrieval.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Here’s a comprehensive literature review for your psychology

practical report on memory and imagery, incorporating Allan Paivio’s
dual coding theory and other relevant research. Since you're asking
for a detailed response with references, I’ll provide an extended
overview that you can build upon. Note that this text can be further
refined or expanded upon based on your needs.

Literature Review
The role of imagery in memory has been extensively explored within
cognitive psychology, with numerous studies underscoring its
importance in enhancing recall and recognition. Allan Paivio's dual
coding theory (1971) is foundational in this regard, positing that
verbal and non-verbal (visual) information is processed through
distinct but interconnected systems. This theoretical framework has
been pivotal in understanding how imagery can bolster memory by
creating additional retrieval pathways. Paivio's experiments using
word lists classified into high-imagery and low-imagery categories
demonstrated that concrete words (e.g., "apple") are more easily
recalled than abstract words (e.g., "justice"), owing to their capacity to
evoke mental images (Paivio, 1971). This seminal work highlighted
the integrative nature of verbal and imagery codes in memory
consolidation and retrieval.
Subsequent research has further validated and expanded on Paivio's
findings. For instance, Bower (1972) examined the mnemonic
benefits of imagery by employing paired-associate learning tasks.
Participants who were instructed to create vivid mental images linking
word pairs demonstrated superior recall compared to those using rote
repetition. This suggests that imagery enhances associative processes,
enabling stronger and more accessible memory traces. Similarly,
Richardson (1977) explored the interplay between imagery and verbal
encoding, revealing that imagery facilitates better organization and
integration of information within memory systems. These studies
collectively emphasize the pivotal role of mental imagery in enriching
cognitive representations and improving memory performance.
In a related study, Nelson and Reed (1976) explored how the
concreteness of words impacts recognition memory. Their results
corroborated Paivio’s dual coding hypothesis, showing that concrete
words with high imagery potential are more likely to be recognized
and recalled than abstract words. The findings also suggested that the
generation of mental images serves as an additional cue during
retrieval, thereby enhancing memory accuracy. This line of research
underscores the practical implications of leveraging imagery
techniques in educational and therapeutic settings to improve memory
performance.
Additionally, Baddeley and Andrade (2000) investigated the
interaction between imagery and working memory. Their research
demonstrated that individuals using imagery-based rehearsal
techniques outperformed those relying solely on verbal strategies in
working memory tasks. This highlights the dynamic interplay
between imagery and cognitive systems, showcasing how mental
imagery serves as a versatile tool for encoding and retrieval processes.
These findings have significant implications for designing memory-
enhancing interventions, particularly for populations with memory
impairments.
Finally, Holmes et al. (2009) explored the therapeutic applications of
imagery in improving memory and emotional regulation. Their study
on individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) revealed
that imagery-based cognitive techniques not only enhance memory
for positive events but also mitigate the emotional impact of negative
memories. This research underscores the broader utility of imagery in
both cognitive and clinical domains, demonstrating its efficacy in
addressing a range of memory-related challenges.

References
 Baddeley, A., & Andrade, J. (2000). Working memory and the
vividness of imagery. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General, 129(1), 126–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-
3445.129.1.126
 Bower, G. H. (1972). Mental imagery and associative learning.
Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 5, 51–90.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-6
 Holmes, E. A., Arntz, A., & Smucker, M. R. (2009). Imagery
rescripting in cognitive behavioral therapy: Images, treatment
techniques, and outcomes. Journal of Behavior Therapy and
Experimental Psychiatry, 38(4), 297–305.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.10.007
 Nelson, D. L., & Reed, V. S. (1976). The effects of imagery on
recognition memory: A study of individual differences. Memory
& Cognition, 4(4), 428–434.
https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03213195
 Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston.
  Richardson, J. T. E. (1977). Mental imagery and human
memory. British Journal of Psychology, 68(1), 83–94.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1977.tb01560.x

DISSCUSSION

4. Interpretation and Discussion

The aim of the study was to investigate the role of interactive imagery
in memory recall using paired associate learning. Specifically, the
study sought to determine if learning would be faster for concrete-
concrete (C-C) word pairs compared to abstract-abstract (A-A) pairs,
and if performance would be better under experimental conditions
where interactive imagery was utilized, compared to controlled
conditions without such instructions.
(The aim of the experiment was to study the role of imagery in
memory. The hypothesis was to see if learning will be faster for C-C
(concrete - concrete) word pair combination and if the stimulus
response combination constructed from high imagery and low
imagery would be learned in the following manner. C-C> C-A > A-C
>A-A. Another hypothesis was to see if recall would be better under
the experimental conditions where interactive imagery instructions
were given as compared to the controlled conditions where no
instructions were given)
4.1 Method
The study employed a within-subjects design, meaning the same
participants were exposed to both control and experimental
conditions. Each participant was presented with word pairs from two
lists—List A (control condition) and List B (experimental condition)
—across three trials. In List A, participants were instructed to read the
word pairs aloud without any additional imagery instructions. In List
B, participants were asked to form bizarre imagery between the word
pairs before recalling the corresponding words. The lists included 16
word pairs each, with varied combinations: concrete-concrete (C-C),
concrete-abstract (C-A), abstract-concrete (A-C), and abstract-abstract
(A-A). The criteria for learning were based on the paired associate
learning paradigm where correct recall of the word pair was recorded
for each trial.
4.2 Describing Result Tables in Short
Table 4 presents the combined results of the recall percentages for
both conditions across all trials. In List A (control condition), the
mean percentage of correct recall for C-C was 49.99%, C-A was
66.66%, A-C was 49.99%, and A-A was 8.33%. In List B
(experimental condition), the mean recall percentage for C-C was
100%, C-A was 91.66%, A-C was 83.33%, and A-A was 33.33%.
When combined across both conditions, the results show that recall
was highest for C-C (74.99%) and lowest for A-A (20.83%).
Table 5 provides a clearer picture by combining the recall percentages
across List A and List B conditions. The results indicate a higher
overall recall percentage in the experimental condition compared to
the control condition for all categories. For C-C pairs, recall improved
dramatically from 49.99% to 100% in the experimental condition.
Similarly, C-A pairs improved from 66.66% to 91.66%, A-C from
49.99% to 83.33%, and A-A from 8.33% to 33.33%. These findings
suggest that the use of interactive imagery not only aids in immediate
recall but also contributes to better retention over multiple trials.
4.3 Interpretation of Results
The results from this study are consistent with existing literature on
paired-associate learning and dual-coding theory. According to
Paivio's dual-coding hypothesis (1971), memory performance is
enhanced when information is processed both verbally and visually. In
the control condition (List A), participants only used verbal rehearsal
to remember word pairs. However, in the experimental condition (List
B), they were encouraged to create vivid images connecting the word
pairs, leading to more effective encoding and retrieval. This additional
visual encoding strategy in the experimental condition facilitated
better memory recall for concrete word pairs, which aligns with the
findings of Richardson (1998) who suggested that interactive imagery
can lead to more effective learning outcomes in paired-associate tasks.
Furthermore, Marschark (1998) and Ruediger (1980) emphasized that
distinctiveness and relational information in memory, when coupled
with vivid imagery, significantly enhance recall. The substantial
improvement seen for C-C word pairs under the experimental
condition suggests that forming images between concrete words
provides a richer, more detailed representation in memory, thereby
improving recall performance. The negligible improvement for A-A
word pairs may be due to the lesser inherent distinctiveness of
abstract words, which are more challenging to visualize and encode
interactively.
Saltz (1981) also supports the findings, noting that imagery, when
combined with verbal learning, aids in better retention compared to
verbal rehearsal alone. In this study, the requirement to form bizarre
images for List B pushed participants towards more complex
encoding strategies, thereby enhancing their ability to recall
information over simple rote learning.
4.4 Conclusion
The study's results underscore the pivotal role of interactive imagery
in memory recall, especially for paired-associate learning. The
significantly higher recall percentages in the experimental condition
suggest that engaging in visual imagery not only aids immediate
recall but also facilitates long-term retention of information. These
findings align with theoretical models like Paivio's dual-coding theory
and empirical evidence from related research, thereby supporting the
hypothesis that learning is faster for C-C word pairs in conditions that
involve interactive imagery.
This study also highlights the limitations of verbal rehearsal in
enhancing memory for abstract word pairs, reinforcing the need for
imagery-based strategies to improve recall in educational and
cognitive contexts. Future research could explore variations in
imagery instructions or the impact of individual differences in
imagery ability on memory recall. The implications of this study
suggest that incorporating visual imagery into educational methods
could be a powerful tool for enhancing learning and retention across a
range of subjects and contexts.