Cells:

The Basic
Units of Life
Strand: Life and
Living
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 What are cells?
• All living organisms, including plants, animals,
bacteria and fungi, are made up of cells.
• Cells are the smallest parts of all living organisms.
⚬ They are the basic structural and functional units of
all living organisms.
• Individual cells cannot be seen with the naked eye
because they are very small - to see cells, a
microscope must be used.
⚬ The cells are, therefore, referred to as microscopic.
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• There are many different types of
microscopes available. The type of
microscopic structures or organisms you
want to observe will determine which
microscope you use.
• Each type of microscope is tailored for
specific research or observational needs,
offering varying levels of detail and
imaging capabilities.
 Name / Type Magnification
Description Applications
of Microscope Range
Compound Uses visible light and a 40X to 1000X Viewing cells, tissues,
light series of lenses to magnify (with oil microorganisms like bacteria,
microscope objects. Often used in immersion, up to and larger cellular organelles
schools and basic research 2000X). (example: nuclei).
labs.
Stereo Provides a three- 10X to 50X Examining larger specimens
Microscope dimensional view of larger (sometimes up to like insects, plant structures,
(Dissecting specimens under lower 100X). or minerals. Often used in
Microscope) magnification. Uses two dissection.
optical paths for each eye.
Confocal Uses laser light and a Up to 2000X. Detailed studies of cellular
Microscope pinhole aperture to focus structures, biofilms, and
on a specific plane, fluorescently labelled
producing high-resolution, molecules.
3D images. Often paired
with fluorescence.
Fluorescence Uses fluorescent dyes or 40X to 2000X. Visualising specific cellular
Microscope proteins that emit light components, proteins, or
when excited by specific pathogens tagged with
wavelengths of light. fluorescent markers.

Transmission Passes electrons through 50 000X to Observing ultra-structures

Electron thinly sliced specimens, 1 000 000X. such as organelles, viruses,
Microscope providing high-resolution and proteins.
(TEM) images of internal
structures.

Scanning Scans the surface of 10X to 500 000X. Examining surface textures
Electron specimens with a focused of cells, insects, and
Microscope beam of electrons, materials.
(SEM) producing detailed 3D
images of surfaces.
Phase- Enhances contrast in 40X to 1000X. Viewing live cells, including
Contrast transparent or unstained organelles like
Microscope specimens by using mitochondria, and
differences in light microorganisms in their
refraction. natural state.

Polarising Uses polarised light to 10X to 400X. Studying crystalline

Microscope study specimens with structures, fibres, and
birefringent properties. minerals.

Digital Incorporates a camera 20X to 500X Educational use, quality

Microscope and display screen, often (varies based on control, and documentation
connected to a computer model). of biological and material
for capturing images and samples.
videos.
Atomic Force Scans the surface of a Up to Nanotechnology, examining
Microscope specimen using a 10 000 000X. DNA, and surface analysis
(AFM) mechanical probe to at the atomic level.
measure atomic-scale
forces.
Scanning Measures electrical Up to Viewing individual atoms,
Tunnelling tunnelling between a 100 000 000X. molecular structures, and
Microscope sharp probe and the conducting materials.
(STM) specimen's surface to map
atomic details.
Darkfield Illuminates specimens 40X to 1000X. Observing living
Microscope with oblique light to microorganisms and
enhance contrast in transparent cells.
unstained samples.

Ultraviolet Uses ultraviolet light to Up to 2000X. Studying proteins, nucleic

(UV) increase resolution and acids, and other UV-
Microscope contrast. Specimens must absorbing structures.
be fluorescent or stained.
• Organisms are classified according to their
cellular structures.
• There are two groups:
• Prokaryotes and
• Eukaryotes.
• Whether an organism is classified as
prokaryote or eukaryote depends on
whether certain structures are present or
absent.
Once organisms are classified as prokaryotic or
eukaryotic, they can be classified further.
The following criteria are used to classify organisms into
the five kingdoms:
• Body structure: unicellular/ multicellular/ colonies
• Cell structure: presence/absence of a nucleus, and
organelles (chloroplasts)
• Composition of cell wall: cellulose/ chitin/ no cell wall
• Motility: mobile/ immobile
• Mode of nutrition: autotrophic/ heterotrophic
• Method of reproduction: binary fission/ asexual/sexual
• Monera kingdom, now split into the domains Bacteria
and Archaea, consists of prokaryotic organisms.
• Protists: A diverse group of mostly unicellular
organisms (examples: amoebas, algae) that don't fit
neatly into the other kingdoms.
• Fungi: Multicellular or unicellular organisms (examples:
mushrooms, yeasts) that absorb nutrients from their
environment.
• Plantae: Multicellular, photosynthetic organisms
(examples: trees, mosses, ferns).
• Animalia: Multicellular organisms that are
heterotrophic and mostly mobile (examples: mammals,
birds, insects).
• Prokaryotes are the simplest organisms.
• They are classified based on the fact that they
do not have a true nucleus, and their
organelles are not membrane-bound (no true
organelles occur in the cytoplasm).
• Their DNA is not enclosed by a nuclear
membrane and therefore occurs free in the
cytoplasm.
• Monera (bacteria) are prokaryotes.
• Prokaryotes are very important in the ecology
of living organisms.
• Some harvest light by photosynthesis, others
break down dead organisms and recycle their
components, others cause disease, and some
have uses in many important industrial
processes.
• There are two main domains of prokaryotes:
• Archaea
• Bacteria
 Micrograph calculations

Spirillum minus

Vibrio cholera

Campylobacter
• Eukaryotes are far more complex than prokaryotic
cells.
• Their key feature is compartmentalisation – this is
achieved by an endomembrane system that weaves
through the cell interior and by numerous
organelles.
• Organelles are the membrane bound structures that
form compartments where multiple biochemical
processes can proceed simultaneously and
independently.
• All eukaryotic cells are supported by an internal
scaffold, the cytoskeleton.
• Organisms with cells that have a true nucleus.
• Their DNA is enclosed by a nuclear membrane
and therefore occurs inside the nucleus.
• True organelles occur in the cytoplasm.
• All protists, fungi, plantae and animalia are
eukaryotes.
 What are organelles?
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 Nucleus
Description:
Largest organelle. It is a membrane-bound organelle containing DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid). Surrounded by a double nuclear membrane
which has pores.
- DNA is contained in the nucleus, while RNA (ribonucleic acid) is
formed in the nucleus before it leaves to enter the cytoplasm.
Function:
Controls all cellular activities (processes and chemical reactions) that take place in the
cell and gene expression (hereditary information). Controls protein synthesis.
Location:
Centre of cell (or slightly off-centre).
Found in:
Plants and Animals.
 Nucleolus
Description:
Dense region inside the nucleus consisting of
RNA. It does not have a membrane.
Function:
Produces ribosomes. It stores or makes ribosomal RNA.
Location:
Inside the nucleus.

Found in:
Plants and Animals.
 Ribosome
Description:
Small, non-membrane-bound structure. Ribosomes are found in
the form of tiny particles in a large number of cells and are
mainly composed of 2/3rd of RNA and 1/3rd of protein.

Function:
Synthesises proteins (which ensures the survival of the cell).
Location:
Cytoplasm (free or attached to the rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum)
Found in:
Plants, Animals and Prokaryotes.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Description:
Membrane system with ribosomes attached. They are
composed of cisternae, tubules, and vesicles.

Function:
Synthesises and modifies proteins.
Location:
Connected to the nuclear envelope but can be
found throughout the cell. Usually close to the
nucleus.
Found in:
Plants and Animals.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Description:
Membrane system without ribosomes.
Function:
Synthesises lipids and steroids and detoxifies
chemicals in the cell. They are the storage
organelle.
Location:
Near the rough Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Found in:
Plants and Animals.
 Golgi Apparatus / Golgi Body
Golgi Complex
Description:
Stacks of membrane-bound sacs. Mainly composed of a series of
flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae.
Function:
Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids
for transport to targeted destinations.
Location:
In the cytoplasm of the cell, near the
Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Found in:
Plants and Animals.
 Mitochondrion
(pl. mitochondria)
Description:
Double-membrane organelle. Can have their own DNA, which will be
different to the DNA in the nucleus.
Function:
Produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate)-
energy - through cellular respiration.
Location:
Throughout the cytoplasm.
Found in:
Plants and Animals.
Chloroplast
Description:
Double-membrane organelle with chlorophyll (green
pigment). They usually vary in their shape.
Function:
Performs photosynthesis (pigments trap light energy).

Location:
Throughout the cytoplasm.
Found in:
Plants.
Vacuole
Description:
Membrane-bound sac. Contain mostly water with other molecules in solution. The
size and number of vacuoles within a cell varies greatly and depends on the type
and function of the cell.
Function:
Stores nutrients, waste, and water;
maintains cell turgor
Location:
Throughout the cytoplasm.
Found in:
Large in Plants, small in Animals.
Lysosome
Description:
Tiny, circular-shaped, single membrane-bound vesicle filled with
digestive enzymes.
Function:
Helps in the digestion and removes
wastes and digests dead and damaged
cells (cell debris).
Location:
Throughout the cytoplasm.
Found in:
Animals. Rare in Plants.
Peroxisome
Description:
Membrane-bound organelle which contains
the reducing enzyme.
Function:
Metabolises and breaks down fatty
acids and detoxifies harmful
substances.
Location:
Throughout the cytoplasm.
Found in:
Plants and Animals.
 Cytoplasm
Description:
Gel-like substance (entire content of cell – cytosol, organelles,
and cytoskeletal structures). Mainly composed of
water, organic and inorganic compounds.
Function:
Supports organelles and facilitates molecular
transport.
Location:
Inside cell membrane. Enclosed by the plasma
membrane. Surrounds the nucleus (if present).
Found in:
Plants, Animals, Prokaryotes.
Description:
Cytosol
Liquid portion of the cytoplasm, excluding organelles and other structures. It
is a gel-like, aqueous solution of ions, small molecules, and macromolecules.
Function:
Serves as the site for many metabolic reactions (example: glycolysis).
Provides a medium for the diffusion of molecules. Acts as a reservoir for
ions and small molecules.
Location:
Within the cytoplasm, surrounding the organelles in eukaryotic cells or filling
the interior of prokaryotic cells.
Found in:
Plants, Animals, Prokaryotes.
 Cytoskeleton
Description:
Continuous network of protein filaments and tubules.
Function:
Provides structural support (and shape), mechanical
resistance against deformation, enables movement
(motility), and organises organelles.

Location:
Throughout the cytoplasm, from the
nucleus to the plasma membrane.
Found in:
Plants, Animals, Prokaryotes.
Cell (Plasma) membrane
Description:
All cells have a cell membrane around them. The cell membrane is a thin
layer that encloses the cell's contents and separates the cell from its
environment. Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Function:
Controls which substances are allowed to enter and leave the cell. We
say the cell membrane is selectively permeable. In an animal cell, it also
functions by providing shape to cell and protection of the inner contents
of the cell.
Location:
Outer boundary of the cell.
Found in:
Plants, Animals, Prokaryotes.
 Cell Wall
Description:
Rigid structure made of cellulose (plants), peptidoglycan
(prokaryotes), or chitin (fungi, exoskeletons of some
invertebrates).
Function:
Provides structural support and protection.
Location:
Surrounds the plasma
membrane.
Found in:
Plants, Prokaryotes.
Vesicle
Description:
Small membrane-bound sacs.

Function:
Storage of materials (neurotransmitters,
enzymes, proteins, and hormones).
Transport materials within the cell.
Location:
Throughout the cytoplasm.
Found in:
Plants, Animals.
Centrosome (with centrioles)
Description:
Microtubule-organising centre. Made up of two
mutually perpendicular structures known as
centrioles.
Function:
Aids in cell division and microtubule organisation.
Centrioles give rise to spindle fibres during cell
division.
Location:
Next to the nucleus and near the centre of the cell.
Found in:
Animals.
Plasmid
Description:
Small, circular extrachromosomal DNA molecule.

Function:
Provides additional genetic information
(can replicate independently).

Location:
Free in the cytoplasm.
Found in:
Prokaryotes. Some eukaryotes
(fungi, plants and protists)
(Chromatin network)
Chloroplast
 Differences between Plant and Animal Cells
Plant cell Animal Cell

Size Usually larger than animal cells. Usually smaller than plant cells.

Flexible.
Inflexible and firm.
Shape No fixed shape/form (round and
Rigid.
irregular shape).

Storage material is starch grains Storage material is glycogen

Storage (carbohydrates) (excess glucose is stored as granules (excess glucose is stored
starch) as glycogen)
 Present.
Consists of non-living cellulose
Cell wall which is rigid. Absent.
Cell wall gives the cell shape and
provides protection.

Present along the periphery of the

Nucleus Present at the centre of the cell.
cell.

Large vacuoles.
Contributes to the shape of the cell. Many, small vacuoles.
Vacuole Also used as storage for nutrients, Vacuoles will be temporary or not
water and waste products. present at all.
Permanent.

Tonoplast Present around the vacuole Absent

 Found in green plants (contain
chlorophyll which allows the plant
Chloroplast (plastid) Absent. Will be heterotrophs.
to photosynthesise – will be
autotrophs)

Present (storage of starch, lipids

Leucoplast Absent
and proteins).

Plasmodesmata Present Absent

Absent (except in motile cells –

Centrioles Present
cilia and flagella - of lower plants)
 Lysosomes Rare in plants Present

Mitochondria in plant cells use Energy primarily comes from food

chemical energy in chloroplasts. intake (glucose from diet is
They will work with peroxisomes broken down for ATP production).
and chloroplasts to manage Animal cells are not involved in
Mitochondria photorespiration. photorespiration.
The number of mitochondria can Typically, mitochondria are more
vary depending on the energy numerous in animal cells since
needs of the cells; but generally they rely entirely on mitochondria
fewer compared to animal cells. for energy.

Animal cells have cholesterol in the cell membrane (plant cells do not).

During cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) a cell plate is formed in the centre of a plant cell. In animal cells a (cleavage) furrow
forms from the periphery of the cell to its centre.

Golgi body is found throughout the cytoplasm of a plant cell. In animal cells it is organised in the cytoplasm.
Types of Plastids

Plastid type Function Colour and Pigments Location in Plant

Photosynthesis (convert
Chloroplasts Green (chlorophyll) Leaves, green stems
sunlight into energy)

Store pigments (example

Fruits, flowers, aging
Chromoplasts carotenoids) for Yellow, orange, red
leaves
colouration

Storage (starch, lipids,

Leucoplasts Colourless Roots, tubers, seeds
proteins)