BIOLOGY

SUMMER TERM NOTE, 2018

WEEK 1
MICROORGANISM AROUND US

What Are Microorganisms?

Microorganisms are defined as “living organisms too small to be seen with the naked eye”, with
exceptions to viruses. Viruses are not really alive but are microscopic. Microorganisms are said
to be ubiquitous i.e. they are present everywhere.

SOME MICROORGANISMS FOUND IN THE SURROUNDINGS

Microorganisms Type Where it is found

Staphylococcus Bacteria Air
Micrococcus Bacteria Air
Poxvirus Virus Air
Paramyxovirus Virus Air
Cyanobacteria Bacteria Water
Spirochaete Bacteria Water
Paramecium Protozoa Water
Nitrobacter Bacteria Soil
Rhizobium Bacteria Soil
Mycorrhizal fungus Fungi Soil
Clostridium tetani Bacteria Soil

There are several ways of identifying microorganisms

1. Morphology: microorganisms differ in their arrangement, structure, size and shape.

2. Use of stains: A different group of microorganisms shows different staining reactions. Simple
stains like methylene blue and crystal violet bring out the size, shape and cell arrangements of the
microorganisms.

3. Characteristics of colonies: When microorganisms are cultured in different types of media the
various characteristics of the colonies they form, can help us identify different species of the
microorganisms. The characteristics include colour, size, and shape.

4. Biochemical tests: Biochemical tests can identify the metabolic activities of different groups of
microorganisms, for instance, if they ferment sugar or utilize carbon.

Microorganisms found in the human body

Part of the body Microorganisms Type

Oral cavity or Mouth cavity Staphylococcus albus Bacteria
 Streptococcus salivarius Bacteria
Candida albicans Fungi
Entamoebagingivalis Protozoa
Under Fingernail Psedomonas Bacteria
Staphylococcus; Klebsiella Bacteria
Acinetobacter; Aeromonas Bacteria
Trichophyton; Aspergillus Fungi
Candida; Rhodotorula Yeast
Expired air / Nose and throat Staphylococcus epidermis Bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus Bacteria
Neisseria catarrhalis Bacteria

Beneficial and harmful effects of microorganisms on and in the body of an adult

Harmful effects of microorganisms
o Normal microflora on and in the body of a healthy adult prevent or interfere with the
invasion of the body by pathogens.
o Some bacteria are needed for food digestion
o Microorganisms are used to break down sewage, in food and chemical industries, in
agriculture and in pollution control.
o Some normal microflora can become pathogenic when the host’s resistance becomes low.
For example, the spirilliae commonly found in the mouth becomes pathogenic and causes
throat infection in women with anaemia.
o Streptococcus ferments refined sugar and produce acid which cause tooth decay.
o Microorganisms cause food spoilage and diseases in humans, livestock and crop.

Carriers of Microorganism
Air, water and food are non-living agents that carry microorganisms from one lacy to another.
Animals are the living agents that carry microorganisms from place to place. The animals that
carry pathogenic microorganisms are known as vectors.

Examples of Vectors
Insects like houseflies, cockroaches, fleas, mosquitoes, tsetse-flies etc. Housefly with its hairy,
sticky body and filthy habits mechanically carries microorganisms from place to place. Animals
like rats, dogs and cats are also vectors.

Microorganisms carried mechanically include Shigella sp., Salmonella enteriditis, Salmonella

typhi etc. In biological method of transfer of microorganisms, a part of the life cycle of the
pathogen takes place in the body of the vector e.g. Aedes mosquito carries the virus that causes
fever. Tsetse-fly carries the protozoa, Trypanosoma, which causes sleeping sickness in humans.

Evaluation
1. State where microorganisms can be found.
2. State what could happen to the teeth if not properly brushed for a long time.
3. Describe the characteristics of some microorganisms
4. What are the effects of microorganisms on humans and animals?
WEEK 2

MICROORGANISMS IN ACTION; TOWARDS BETTER HEALTH

Recognising the presence of microbes by colonies they form

A colony is composed of a large number of microorganisms of the same kind clumped together.
Each colony is formed by growth of a single microorganism. Colonies can be seen by the naked
eye, but individual microorganisms are invisible to the naked eye. Most microorganisms,
especially bacteria and fungi, form characteristic colonies. The appearance of a colony helps in
the identification of the microorganism. The features of a colony that should be noted are as
follows:

- Colour and pigmentation

- Texture (smooth, rough)
- Size (in millimetres)
- Edge (entire, wavy, irregular)
- Translucent or opaque
- Effect on culture medium

Growth of microorganisms
Growth of microorganisms refers to increase in population size i.e. the number of individuals
rather than increase in cell size. Reproduction is responsible for the increase in population size.
Ways of Measuring the Growth of microorganisms

Microbial is measured in terms of the increase in the number of cells. The growth of a population
of microorganisms can be measured by following method:

1. Directly by counting the cell numbers i.e. direct microscopic count using a counting chamber.
This method counts both dead and live cells in the sample culture.

2. Indirectly by measuring the turbidity of a culture of cells suspended in a liquid: For a sample of
cells suspended in a nutrient broth, the growth of the microorganisms can be determined by
measuring the turbidity of the nutrient broth at regular intervals. A spectrophotometer is used to
measure the turbidity of the sample. In a spectrophotometer, a beam of light is passed through a
tube of microbial cells in a suspension. Turbidity affects the scattering of light by the cells in the
suspension. If there are more cells in a suspension, greater amount of light is scattered and the
greater is the turbidity.

3. Plate count: In this method, a culture in liquid is diluted, transferred to an agar plate and spread
over the plate with a glass rod. After incubation, the number of colonies on the plate is counted.
It is assured that each colony is formed from a single cell which is known as a colony-forming
unit. Since the cell must have been alive to grow and form a colony, only viable cells are counted.
The number of microorganisms in the original sample is equal to the number of colonies that grow
on the plate.
Rate of growth of microbes
A growth curve can be used to describe the growth curve can be used to describe the growth of
microorganisms in an environment with limited resources. It is a typical sigmoid curve. The four
stages of the growth curve are as follows:

1) Lag phase: Growth is slow as the microorganisms are adapting to the conditions in the
environment.

2) Exponential phase: The microorganisms reproduce rapidly, and their numbers increase
exponentially.

3) Stationary phase: Eventually, the nutrients in the environment are exhausted. Toxic
byproducts have also accumulated in the medium. At this stage, the net growth is zero and
the number of microorganisms stabilizes.

4) Death phase: In this stage, cells die faster than they are replaced, and the microbial
population decreases in size rapidly.

Beneficial Effects of Microorganisms in Nature

Microorganisms play an important role in

i. Maintaining soil fertility: The activities of saprophytic bacteria and fungi convert dead
parts of organisms and their wastes into humus which improves soil fertility

ii. Recycling of nutrients in ecosystems: In nature substances such as carbon, nitrogen,

oxygen, water, phosphorus and sulphates are built up into large organic molecules such as
proteins and carbohydrates by various autotrophs including microbial ones. These
compounds are set free, mainly by microbial decomposers as carbon dioxide when the
microorganisms die.

iii. Synthesis of vitamins

The intestinal bacteria in Man can synthesis Vitamin K, which is required for proper blood
clotting. The synthesis of Vitamin B12 is also produced entirely by the bacteria in the
intestines. This vitamin is essential for the functioning of red blood cells and the
maintenance of a healthy nervous system.

iv. Beneficial Effects of microorganisms in Medicine

The best-known antibiotic is penicillin produced by the fungus Penicillium. Other
examples include streptomycin and tetracycline produced by the Streptomyces bacteria.

v. Beneficial Effects of microorganisms in Industries

Tanning of leather: Tanning refers to the process of making leather from the hides of
animals. The enzymes produced by some bacterial are used to soften leather during the
tanning process. Microorganisms are used to carry out fermentation processes in many
food industries. Microorganisms act on certain edible substances or foods to produce foods
 vi. Retting
The retting of fibre plants refers to the separation of fibres from the inner stalks of the
plants so that they can be processed to make fabric. Bacteria are also involved in this
process.

Evaluation
1. State the relationship among growth rate of microorganisms and environmental factors.

2. State the main ingredients for the production of alcohol and yoghurt.

3. List some diseases caused by microorganisms.

4. Discuss some beneficial effects of microorganisms.

MICROBES AND BETTER HEALTH

Control of Harmful Microorganisms

To prevent infectious diseases from spreading, we must kill or inhibit the growth of disease-
causing microorganisms. The following are some of the common methods of controlling disease-
causing agents:

1. High temperature: Most microorganisms that cause diseases in humans grow and multiply
around 37oC, the normal body temperature. At low temperature their growth is inhibited, but at
high temperatures they are killed. Hence we can get rid of pathogenic microorganisms
o in food by cooking it at high temperature and for a period of time.
o In water by boiling it
o In contaminated objects by boiling them for 30mins, heating them in an oven at 160 oC (dry
heat), or heating them in an autoclave (moist heat)
o Microorganisms cause milk to become sour very quickly, especially in the tropics. To
prevent this, milk is pasteurized by heating to 72oC for 15seconds and cooling rapidly.
This destroys most of the microorganisms, thereby allowing it to ‘keep’ for a longer time.

2. Antiseptics: Antiseptics are chemicals that kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms found
on the external surfaces of the body. Mild chemicals can be applied to wounds or cuts to prevent
infection. E.g. ethanol, hydrogen peroxide etc. Disinfectants are chemicals that also kill or inhibit
the growth of pathogens, but they are stronger chemicals than antiseptics and so are often used on
non-living things and surfaces. Examples of disinfectants are carbolic acid used for disinfecting
lavatories and floors.
3. Antibiotics: Antibiotics are produced by microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. They are
capable of inhibiting or destroying certain bacteria at low concentrations, but are not effective
against viruses. Examples of antibiotics are penicillin, tetracycline etc. Example of anti-fungi
antibiotics are amphotericin B and nystatin.

4. High salinity: Solutions containing high levels of salt inhibits the growth of microbial cell,
thereby preventing its multiplication. Salt solution causes the water in microorganisms to be drawn
by the process of osmosis, causing the microbial to be dehydrated and killing them in the process.
Some food are preserved by salting.

5. Dehydration: involves the direct removal of water from food in order to stop or delay food
spoilage. Drying removes water which is essential for microbial growth. It also create an outer
crust on the food which reduces the ability of microorganisms to penetrate the food. Drying
processes include sun drying, in this way the ultraviolet in the sun also kill pathogenic
microorganisms. Freeze-drying is a method in which food is frozen and water is subsequently
removed by means of sublimation.

Ways of Controlling Vectors

The animals that carry pathogenic microorganisms are known as vectors. The most important
vectors of diseases are insects and rodents. Insect vectors include mosquitoes, houseflies, tsetse-
flies, lice, cockroaches and fleas. Rodent vectors are rats, mice etc. Ways by which they can be
controlled are as follows:

1. Environmental methods, which involve destroying the breeding sites of vectors such as clearing
stagnant water to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes.
p
2. Adding salt to ant-traps, thus making the water unsuitable for egg development.

3. Physical methods, in which nets, traps, or screens are used to trap or keep vectors away from
certain areas.

4. Chemical methods which involve the use of natural predators to destroy the larvae of vectors
e.g. fishes that eat the larvae.

5. Biological Methods: refers to the use of predators, parasites and pathogens to reduce the
mosquito population. Mosquito-eating fishes like the guppies are introduced into ponds and
ditches to feed on the larvae and pupae, and thus control the mosquito population.

6. Genetic control includes the release of sterile male mosquitoes into the environment. Sterile
male mosquitoes are obtained in the laboratory by exposing normal males to certain chemicals
and radiation.

Refuse Disposal
This is the proper disposal of solid waste to reduce the breeding of vectors and pest that spread
diseases. There are two methods of refuse disposal; these are (I) landfill (ii) incineration.

Sewage Disposal
Proper sewage disposal system acts as barriers that isolates the pathogens in faeces and urine, and
prevents them from spreading and infecting healthy people. The common sewage disposal systems
are as follows:

I. direct disposal method e.g. it latrine

ii. the conservancy method e.g. the bucket latrine and chemical latrine
iii. water carriage system

Health Organizations
Health organization provides health services for the people. They categorize into two which are
local health organization and international health organization. The local health organizations are
various health organizations under the supervision of the ministry of health of each country. They
may be government or voluntary agencies. Local health organization includes:

I. National Health Services,

ii. Public Health Authority. Voluntary health organizations include the
iii. Nigerian Red Cross Society,
iv. AkanuIbiam Nigerian National Ambulance,
v. St. John’s ambulance etc.

International health organization includes:

I. World Health Organization (WHO) which is a special unit of the United Organization,
ii. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF): This is set up to improve the health and welfare of
children.
iii. Food and Agricultural Organization (FA\O): The main function of FAO is to raise living
standards and improve the production of agricultural products.
iv. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC).

Evaluation

1. List some vectors of microorganisms.

2. How can we protect our environment from harmful microorganisms?
3. List ways by water can protected from pollution.
4. What are the roles individual should play to ensure good health?
5. List four national health organizations, describing their area of work.

WEEK 3

RESPIRATION

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Cellular respiration is the chemical activities of the cells in which glucose is broken down by a
series of reaction controlled by enzymes to release energy.

There are two type of cellular respiration

i) Aerobic respiration: is the breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen to
release large amount of energy, carbon dioxide and water. Aerobic respiration can be
represented by the chemical equation below:

C6H12O6 + 6CO2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

 Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

ii) Anaerobic respiration: is the breakdown of food substances with the release of a
comparatively small amount of energy in the absence of oxygen.

Some examples of anaerobic respiration include alcohol fermentation, lactic acid

fermentation and in decomposition of organic matter. The equation is:
glucose + enzymes = carbon dioxide + ethanol / lactic acid. Though it does not produce
as much energy as aerobic respiration, it gets the job done

Equation for anaerobic respiration (fermentation in yeast)

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy

Glucose ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy

Anaerobic respiration in humans takes place when muscle undergoes extreme contraction as in
vigorous exercise.

Equation in words:
Glucose Lactic Acid + (smaller amount of) Energy

Equation written in chemical symbols:

C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + (smaller amount of) Energy

Note: In this case lactic acid, which is also called 'lactate' is the waste product §. It's presence
creates an 'oxygen debt'. Lactic acid can be removed by increasing the supply of oxygen to the
tissues via the actions of the respiratory system and the blood circulation system.

8
Lactic Acid creates an 'oxygen debt'
Lactic acid is a toxic (poisonous) chemical that can cause muscles to stop working.
The presence of the lactic acid is sometimes described as an 'oxygen debt'.
This is because significant quantities of lactic acid can only§ be removed reasonably quickly by
combining with oxygen.
However, the lactic acid was only formed due to lack of sufficient oxygen to release the required
energy to the muscle tissue via aerobic respiration. Lactic acid can accumulate in muscle tissue
that continues to be over-worked. Eventually, so much lactic acid can build-up that the muscle
ceases working until the oxygen supply that it needs has been replenished.
To 're-pay' such an 'oxygen debt', the body must take in more oxygen in order to get rid of the
additional unwanted waste product lactic acid (C3H6O3).
To do this the body reacts as follows:
  the medulla oblongata (a 'primitive' part of the brain) responds to the presence of lactic
acid by adjusting the pH of the blood due to the concentration of dissolved carbon
dioxide (CO2).
 the heart rate increases
 the respiratory rate increases
The 'recovery time' during which extra oxygen is taken-in to re-pay the 'oxygen debt' before the
body reverts to its usual heart rate and breathing rate is typically about 12 - 16 seconds.
(Obviously this depends on the extent of exertion and the person's physical condition incl.
fitness.)
GLYCOLYSIS AND KREB’S CYCLE
The breaking down of glucose in the body passes through several pathways before it can produce
energy. These pathways are Glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle.

GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis is a series of chemical reactions which involves the breaking down of glucose to a 3-
carbon molecule called pyruvic acid. The process of glycolysis begins with the phosphorylation
of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate and so on till pyruvic acid is produced. Glycolysis takes place
in the cytoplasm, and it does not require oxygen. Glycolysis consumes two molecules of ATP so
that there is a net production of two ATP molecules. Two molecules of nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NADH) are also formed during glycolysis.

What happens to the pyruvic acid depends on whether oxygen is present or not. In anaerobes
(absence of oxygen), the pyruvic acid is converted to alcohol in plants and lactic acid in animals.

If oxygen is present, pyruvic acid under the influence of enzymes is oxidized to Acetyl-
Coenzyme A (Acetyl Co A), and carbon dioxide. Acetyl Co A enters the Krebs cycle or citric
acid cycle where series of changes take place and oxygen combines with hydrogen to form
water. In the process, a large quantity of energy is generated in the form of ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate). The reactions of Kreb’s cycle take place inside the mitochondria and a total net of
36 ATPs are produced per molecule of glucose.

METABOLISM
Metabolism refers to sum total of all physical and chemical processes of a cell or an organism.
Metabolism is divided into anabolism and catabolism.
Anabolism is the building up of complex organic molecules from simple ones e.g.
photosynthesis in plants. Catabolism is the breaking down of complex organic molecules into
simple substances e.g. respiration.

WEEK 4

GAS EXCHANGE

BREATHING

The nature of our systems is such that the products of one eventually get to the other.
This however is due to the interconnecting tissues, tissue fluids, cell interstitial that deliver blood
to all the organs and gather the wastes to the kidney and eventually to the heart where the blood is
pumped out again.

Oxygen is important to us why we breathe it for the production of energy.

Respiration is the release of energy from food (glucose). It occurs in the cell’s mitochondria,
and involves enzymes. Almost all organisms respire. Except the virus of course. The air breathing
organisms always need a fresh supply of oxygen.

Breathing refreshes the air in the alveoli so that a concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide
within the lungs remains constant.

Definition:- Respiration is the chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living
cells to release energy.

Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active
transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the maintenance of a constant body
temperature.

The Ventilation of the lungs occurs with inhalation and exhalation.

Inhalation also called inspiration, during these phases (inhalation and exhalation) the air ways
are kept open by cartilage that line the trachea, branched bronchi and prevents them from
collapsing or bursting during gaseous exchange. The bronchioles do not have cartilage this is also
an adaptation. As they have smooth muscles which can contract or relax to adjust the diameter of
these tiny airways. Elastic fibres which where are stretched during exercise when muscles contract
spring back to dilate the bronchioles. They relax to allow greater flow of air to the alveoli.
Difference in volume of Air & Air Pressure during breathing.

When we breathe out the air 1.5dm3 volume we pass out is the expiratory reserve. We breathe
in continuously 1.5dm3. When we empty the lungs in a forced exhalation the volume of air passed
out is the vital capacity which is at most 3.5dm3. If you take a maximum breathe out and followed
by a maximum breath in, you will inhale some 3.5dm3. This is called your vital capacity. The lung
capacity however is the total volume of air the lung can hold.

Lung Capacity = Vital Capacity

3.5 dm3 + Residual volume 1.5dm3 = 5dm3.

During exercise we can hold up to 6dm3 the Volume Varies between 5 – 8dm3.

Lastly it is important to note that the tidal volume which has a value of 0.5dm3. That of this amount
only 0.35dm3 reaches the alveoli at each breath. The remaining 0.15dm3 is left in the trachea,
bronchi and bronchioles, this is called dead space.

Dead space is the amount of air left in the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. Since there is no
gaseous exchange in these places the air is said to be in dead space.
With this information we can now attempt to calculate Ventilation rate.

Vr2 = tidal volume x breathing (Ventilation) rat breathe permit 15.

:- Ventilation rate = tidal volume x breath capacity

Control of ventilation (No of time we breathe)

CO2 controls the rate of breathing indirect when the lower stem of the brain (respiratory centres)
receives impulse that CO2 concentrated in the blood is high it stimulates used breathing through
the phrenic and thoracic nerves to the diaphragm and intercoastal muscles to the respectively this
causes increased inspiration. The frontal / ventral lobe medulla oblongata controls inspiration the
rest of the medullar oblongata control breathing out.

The control centres rely on Chemoreceptor found on the Aortic and carotid Vessels. On detecting
high / low levels of CO2 they stimulate the area concerned. Phrenic and thoracic nerve. Thus
control of ventilation Depends on the Chemoreceptor, stretching of the inter-coastal and diaphragm
muscles and levels of CO2 in the blood. Change in oxygen has little effect.

Functions:-

When the chemoreceptor detect high concentrations of CO2. They send stimulus as impulse to the
brain through the phrenic thoracic nerves. This in turn sets up a response as the medulla stimulates
the increase rate of inter coastal muscle contraction. Through the vagus nerve when lungs are fully
stretched, impulse reaches the brain to stop inspiration when the chemoreceptors detect low CO 2
tension or low CO2 pressure.

It stimulates the expiration Centre and so the diaphragm contracts and flattens. Intercoastal
muscles contract to increase the volume of the lungs. And there is increased aspiratory rate. The
breathing rate is thus controlled by CO2 concentrations.

Review of the steps during the inhalation of Air

i. The diaphragm contracts and flattens

ii. The intercoastal muscles contracting
iii. Chest cavity expands.
 iv. Sternum pushes forward and rises up.
v. Lungs expand

The pressure in the lungs decrease Air rushes in through the nostrils. N:B the flattening of the
diaphragm increases volume. And as the composition of air is more at CO 2 than O2 Pressure
becomes lower per volume.

In Exhalation:- also called expiration/breathing out

The reverse takes place since the chest cavity falls. The volume reduces, hence pressure increased.
This makes the diaphragm which contracted to relax. It returns to the curved position. High
pressure together with the muscle relaxing and collapsing chest pushes air out of the lungs.

Review of the steps during the exhalation (breathing out) of Air

i. The opposite happens:

ii. The internal intercoastal muscles relax
iii. The diaphragm muscles relax ---> diaphragm moves up
iv. Volume of the thorax decreases
v. Air pressure in the thoracic cavity increases
vi. Air rush out of the lungs. And lungs flatten

Cardiac output:-

We are at rest we can feel the pulse a beat per second and this translates to = 64 beats per minute.

During exercise it can go up to 150 per minute, 110 per minute minimum.

We can obtain the cardiac output by using the formula:

Cardiac output = heart pulse rate x stroke volume.

USEFULNESS OF FOOD

1. To provide energy needed for various physical and metabolic activities

2. To make essential substances such as hormones and enzymes
3. To make new cells for growth and replacement of worn-out tissues
4. To supply various substances required for healthy growth and development
 The energy released from ATP can be used in many activities such as;
• Cell division

• Maintaining temperature

• Active transport in the membrane

• Conduction of nerve impulses

Uses of respiration

Bread making

- yeast is mixed with water to activate it

then added to flour to make dough

- mixture -----> warm place ------> rise

- yeast releases CO2 ------> dough rises

* a warm to ( temperature)is important because

fermentation is controlled by enzymes

- when dough is cooked, high to kills yeast

and evaporates any formed ethanol

- air spaces are left where CO2 was trapped.

Brewing

 yeast is added to a source of sugar

(fruit juice or germinated barley grains) and kept in warm

conditions

 fermentation (yeast respires the sugar) occurs -----

-> ethanol is formed making the drink alcoholic
 CO2 makes the drink fizzy + sharp flavour.

WEEK 5

NERVOUS CO-ORDINATION
Co-ordination is define as the process by which different part of an organism work together for
increase effectiveness.

The two communication system that bring about co-ordination are:

(1) The Endocrine system (hormones)

(2) The nervous system

CO-ORDINATION

Hormonal Coordination

(Endocrine system) Nervous system

Peripheral/nervous system central nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

Somatic nervous system

Parasympathetic

nervous system sympathetic nervous system.

Brain spinal cords

Nervous co-ordination is made up of nerve cells or neurons, the nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system .

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

It consist of the brain and the spinal cord .

THE BRAIN.

The brain is divided into three main parts namely,

(1). the fore brain

(2). the mid brain

(3). the hind brain

FORE BRAIN .

The fore brain is made up of olfactory lobes, cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus

(1) OLFACTORY LORES: they are located anteriorly at the fore brain .the olfactory lobes
control sensory impulse of smell.

(2)CEREBRUM: This consist of two holies, the right and the left cerebral hemispheres. The
halves are connected by a bad of fibres, the corpus callosum each cerebral hemisphere is
composed of four indistinct lobes. front, parietal, temporal and occipital.

FUNCTION OF CEREBRUM

(I). It is the seat of contentiousness/sense, intelligence, memory, judgment, learning,

imagination, voluntary action/has motor area

(1). It collect and store information

(3). THALAMUS: Thalami (plural) are ovoid structure attached to the back of
the forebrain.

FUNCTION OF THALAMUS.

(1). It receive sensory information from various part of the nervous system, integrating it and
passing it into the relevant region of the cerebral cortex.

(2). It is the seat of awareness and consciousness.

HYPOTHALAMUS: This region is just below the thalamus.

Functions of Hypothalamus

1) It connects the pituitary gland to the thalamus

2) It contains the reflex centre’s.
3) It regulates body temperature.
4) It regulates water balance(Osmoregulation)
5) It controls sleep/wakefulness
6) It controls blood pressure.
7) It is the centre of appetite/feeding and drinking
8) It controls speech
9) It controls the pituitary gland.

PINEAL BODY

The function of pineal body is not known

MIDBRAIN

The midbrain connects the forebrain to the hindbrain. It is narrow and short and consists of optic
lobes, The optic lobes are responsible for sight. The optic nerves enter the midbrain from the
eyes. It also controls reflexes connected, with hearing. Midbrain connects the forebrain to the
hindbrain and thereby assists in transmission of impulses.

HINDBRAIN

The hindbrain consists of cerebellum, medulla-oblongata and pons varolli

Functions of Medulla-oblongata

1. It controls breathing/respiration.
2. It controls heartbeat
3. It controls digestion
4. It controls size of blood vessels/supply of blood to all parts of the body/body circulation
5. It controls laughing
6. It controls the secretion of saliva
7. It controls involuntary actions/sneezing/blinking/coughing/yawning.
CEREBELLUM

The cerebellum is a thick and convoluted portion of the hindbrain.

Functions of Cerebellum
1. The cerebellum controls posture or posture or balance of the body
2. It co-ordinates the various muscle actions in involuntary responses
3. It receives impulses from auditory organs(Semi circular canal of the ear) and skin.

Diagram

SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is enveloped within three membranes which support and protect it. A narrow
canal, the spinal canal runs down the centre of the cord. It is filled with a fluid, cerebrospinal
fluid.

A transverse section of the spinal cord shows a greyish central region, the grey matter,
surrounded by a lighter region, the white matter. The grey matter composed practically all the
cell bodies of the neurons in the spinal cord while the white matter consists of the nerve fibres of
their cell bodies. Some of these fibres run along the spinal cord to the brain, connecting both the
brain and spinal cord. Others leave the spinal cord to form special neurone.

DIAGRAM

Functions of a spinal cord

1. The spinal cord connects impulses from them to the brain and conducts impulses from
them to the brain.
2. It co-ordinates simple reflex actions.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

These are the sensory nerves which lead from all parts of the body to the central nervous system
and the motor nerves running from the central nervous system to all parts of the body. The
peripheral nervous system is made up of the rest of the nervous system except the central nervous
system. It is subdivided into the sensory somatic and autonomic nervous system

1. Sensory – somatic nervous system: it controls activities which are mainly voluntary. It
deals mainly with external stimuli and their responses. The animal(s) awareness of all
 external stimuli and the corresponding nervous responses are achieved through the
sensory-somatic nervous system

2. Autonomic nervous system: the autonomic nervous system brings about involuntary
activities such as those observed in the internal organs, such as the heart, the alimentary
canal and the bladder. The autonomic nervous system is of two types:

a. The sympathetic nervous system and

b. The parasympathetic nervous system

In bringing about the activities of the internal organs, the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous theatric nervous system stimulates many parts of the body for necessary action in
times of danger while the parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to a normal
state after stimulation by the sympathetic nervous system.

Differences between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System

Sympathetic Parasympathetic

1. pupils of the eye dilate pupils of the eye constricts

2. Salivary glands secretion salivary glands made to secrete.

Inhibited

3. Heartbeat made to be accelerated heartbeat made to slow down

4. Stomach churning movements stomach churning movements and

and secretion of digestive secretion of digestive, juice stimulated

juice inhibited

5. Sweat glands produce sweat sweat secretion inhibited

6. Adrenal medulla secretes secretion of adrenal medulla

adrenaline inhibited
7. It raises blood pressure it lowers blood pressure

8. It constricts arteries it dilates arteries

9. It contracts bladder and it releases bladder and anal sphincter

sphincter

NEURONE

The nerve cell or neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system

A neuron consists of an axon, cell body and the dendrites. The axon is a long fibre arising from
the cell body which branches to form a motor and plate at the free end. The synaptic knobs are
found at the end of each branch. The axon is covered with a fatty myelin stealth which insulates
and protects the axon. The non myelinated fibres do not have such stealth. The myelin is
interrupted at intervals by constriction known as nodes of Ranvier

The myelin stealth and the nodes of Ranvier increase the speed of impulses along the axon
conducts impulses from the cell body to the effectors organs or another neuron

The cell body consists of a nucleus and the cytoplasm’s the cytoplasm contains granules which
are rich in protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The cell body is connected to the dendrons which
terminate with hair likes structures called dendrites. The Dendron carry nerve impulses that he
dendrites received to the cell body. The dendrites are the main receptive regions of the neuron.
The cell body relays impulses it receives to the axon.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONE

1. Sensory (afferent) neurone: it transmits impulses from the sensory cell or receptor
towards the central nervous system

2. Motor (efferent) neurone: it transmits responses away from the central nervous system to
the effector organ.

3. Intermediate (association) neurone: it joins the sensory neurone with the motor neurone

WEEK 6

Endocrine Hormones

What are endocrine hormones? Endocrine hormones can be described as

1. Chemical signals from one cell to remote target cells.

2. Chemicals for direct cell-to-cell communication.

 3. Chemicals that cross a gap between to adjacent cells.

Pituitary Hormones

Endocrine Hormones
Pituitary Hormone Functions
Hormones WEEK 7
Functions

Follicle-stimulating Stimulates in
Tropic responses; Co-ordination eggplants
maturation in hormones)
(plant the ovary and release of
Thyroid
hormone Thyroxine Regulates metabolism
TROPISM sex hormones.

Plant growthCalcitonin
in response to Inhibits release of calcium from the bones
a stimulus
Lutenizing hormone Stimulates maturation of egg and of the corpus luteum
There are many types of tropisms : the egg, which affects female sex hormones
surrounding
Parathyroids Parathyroid hormone Stimulates the release of calcium from the bones.
• Phototropism
and the menstrual cycle.
Islet cells (in the Insulin Decreases blood sugar by promoting uptake
• Geotropism
pancreas)
Thyroid-stimulating Stimulates the thyroid to release thyroxine.
of glucose by cells.
hormone • Thigmotropism

•Glucagon
Hydrotropism Increases blood sugar by stimulating
Adrenocorticotropic Causes the adrenal gland to release cortisol.
hormone • Chemotropism breakdown of glycogen in the liver.

• Thermotropism
Testosterone Stimulates synthesis
Melanocyte-stimulating
Testes Stimulateof skin pigments.
production of sperms and development of secondary
hormone
sexual characteristics
Geotropism
Ovaries
Growth
GeotropismEstrogen
hormone is the growthStimulates Stimulates
of a plantgrowth eggto
during
in response maturation,
infancy controls development of
and puberty.
gravity.

Positive Geotropism secondary sexual characteristics.

Antidiuretic hormone
It is the growth of a plant Signals
towardsthe
thekidney toof
centre conserve more water.
the earth-down with gravity.
Progesterone Prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized egg.
Ex. roots growing down
Adrenal cortex
Oxytocin Epinephrine Stimulates
Affects childbirth, “fight and
lactation, or flight”
some response.
behaviors.

AdrenalNegative
medulla Geotropism
Glucocorticoids Part of stress response, increase blood

It is the growth of a plant away from the centre

glucose levelsofand
thedecrease
earth-opposite
immunefrom the pull of gravity
response.

Ex. stems grow up

Aldosterone Regulates sodium content in the blood.

Testosterone (in both Adult body form (greater muscle mass),

sexes)
libido.
IMPORTANCE OF GEOTROPISM

• Pulls roots down to anchor a plant

• Roots can get needed water and minerals if they stay in the soil

Phototropism

The growth response of a plant in response to light direction is called phototropism.

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOTROPISM

Enables leaves to be in the best position possible to receive adequate light for photosynthesis

Thigmotropism

Thigmotropism is the growth of a plant in response to touch/contact.

Thermotropism

Thermotropism is the tendency of plants or other organisms to bend toward or away from heat.

Ex. curling of Rhododendron leaves in response to cold temperatures.

Hydrotropism

Hydrotropism is the growth in response to water. Ex. roots growing toward moisture

Chemotropism

Chemotropism is movement caused by chemical stimuli. Ex. Growth of a pollen tube is always
towards the ovules so that reproduction can occur.

WEEK 8

TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSE IN A NEURONE

The transmission of impulse in a neurone include:

1. Resting potential (stage)

2. Action potential (stage)

3. Repolirization stage

Resting Potential (stage): the transmission of impulse along neurone is by electrical activity. The
resting stage (potential) is the stage when no impulse is passing through the fibre. A neurone is
electrically polarized with a net positive charge outside and a net negative charge inside, the cell
membrane. There are more potassium ions inside more than outside and more sodium outside that
inside the membrane.

Action potential (stage): when the dendrites receive a stimulus the beginning of the axon is
stimulated. The part of the axon becomes temporarily depolarized by the inward flow of sodium
ion and the outward flow of potassium ions, which in turn becomes depolarized. As this process
continues depolarization occurs from one end of the axon to the other. The nerve fibre is said to
be at an action potential. The inner side of the membrane of the nerve fibre is electropositive
relative to the outside.

Repolarization phase: soon after the transmission of the impulse (as a wave of depolarization) the
resting potential is established

TRANSIMISSION OF IMPULSE ACROSS THE SYNAPSE

A synapse is the precise point where one neurone connect with another. The transmission of
impulse across a synapse is by chemical means. The arrival of an impulse of the synapse causes
the release of a chemical transmitter acetylcholine (ACH). Acetylcholine diffuses across the
synaptic gap and bring about excitation of the post synaptic nerve cell from where the impulse is
carried along the adjoining nerve. Once acetylcholine has depolarized the post synaptic membrane
an enzyme cholinesterase prevents it from accumulating at the synapse by rendering it inactive.

REFLEX ACTION
A reflex action is a rapid or quick response to stimuli which are not consciously controlled by the
brain e.g. blink of the eyes, jerking of knee, withdrawal of hand from hot objects

CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX ACTION

1. Reflex action is automatic

2. It is very fast

3. It is entirely stereo-typed in nature

4. It involves minimum number of neurone

5. Conscious part of the brain is not involved

6. It is inborn

Voluntary actions are responses to stimuli that are consciously controlled or co-ordinated by the
brain

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN REFLEX ACTION AND VOLUNTARY ACTION

Reflex action Voluntary action

1. Response is very rapid response is very slow

2. Response is sterotype response varies with the circumstances

3. Action are automatic actions are deliberate

4. Action is inborn (instinctive) action is not inborn. It may be learnt

5. Usually involves a small number involves numerous neurons

of neurons

REFLEX ARC
The path taken by the impulse during a reflex is known as a reflex arc. The event that occur during
a reflex action, for example, when a person suddenly and unknowingly touches a hot object can
be described as follows.

1. On touching the hot objects the nerve ending in the skin is stimulated

2. The impulse are transmitted through the dorsal root into the spinal cord

3. From here, the impulse are relayed via the synapses into the intermediate neurone through
another synapse to the motor or efferent neurone

4. This passes through the ventral root to be motor (effector) organ which about a responses.
The impulse causes the muscle of the hand to contract, thereby removing the hand from
the painful stimulus and preventing injury to the tissue. The whole response occurs within
a fraction of a second.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HORMONAL AND NERVOUS CO-ORDINATION

HORMONAL CO-ORDINATION NERVOUS CO-ORDINATION

1. Involves transmission of chemical Involves transmission of electrical impulses

substances in the blood stream and chemical substances by the nervous system.

2. Response to stimulus is slower Response to stimulus is faster

3. Hormones are secreted into the Nerve impulses transmitted to a

blood and carried to any of the body particular set of neurons in the body.

4. The target organ is usually far Target organ may be near or far

away from the site of production away from the site of production

5. Responses may last for a long time Responses are shorthand

6. secretion of hormones and their Nervous actions and their responses may be
responses are involuntary voluntary or involuntary

7. Hormonal co-ordination occurs in Nervous co-ordination occurs only

both plants and animals in animals