NUTAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH (NCER) PUNE

Nutan Maharashtra Vidya Prasarak Mandal’s

NUTAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
RESEARCH,
Under Administrative Support of Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust
ISO 9001:2008 Certified
DEPARTMENT - MECHANICAL

SUBJECT: MANUFACTURING PROCESS - I

Unit No.1
Introduction and Casting Processes

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (SANDWICH)

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2019-2020

SUBJECT TEACHER: PROF. MILIND G. OVHAL

PROF.MILIND OVHAL, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (SANDWICH)

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

SEMESTER – IV

Unit 1: Introduction and Casting Processes [06 Hours]

What is manufacturing? Selection of manufacturing processes Introduction to casting;

solidification of metals: Pure metals, Alloys; fluid flow; fluidity of molten metal; heat transfer:
Solidification time, Shrinkage; defects: Porosity; Metal casting processes: Introduction; sand
casting, shell molding, investment casting; Permanent-mold casting, vacuum casting, die
casting, centrifugal casting; Inspection of casting; melting practice and furnaces, general
design considerations for casting.
What is manufacturing?

Manufacturing is the production of products for use or sale using Labour and machines, tools.
The process of converting raw materials, components, or parts into finished goods that meet a
customer's expectations or specifications. Manufacturing commonly employs a man-machine setup with
division of labor in a large-scale production.

Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw
materials are transformed into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the
product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials
are then modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part.

Manufacturing Processes-

1.Casting molding

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2.Metal shearing & forming

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3.Rolling & forging

4.Joining

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5.Machining

6.Surface finish

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INTRODUCTION TO CASTING PROCESS

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified
part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the
process. Casting materials are usually metals or various time setting materials that cure after
mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay.
Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or
uneconomical to make by other methods. Heavy equipment like machine tool beds, ships'
propellers, etc. can be cast easily in the required size, rather than fabricating by joining several
small pieces.

SAND CASTING

casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using
sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the
sand-casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over
60% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process.

Molds made of sand are relatively cheap, and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry use.
In addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand.
The mixture is moistened, typically with water, but sometimes with other substances, to
develop the strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for molding.
The sand is typically contained in a system of frames or mold boxes known as a flask. The mold
cavities and gate system are created by compacting the sand around models called patterns, by
carving directly into the sand, or by 3D printing.

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There are six steps in this process:

1.Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.
2.Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3.Remove the pattern.
4.Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5.Allow the metal to cool.
6.Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

Advantages of Using Sand Casting

1. Nearly Any Alloy:

Sand castings can be readily produced in nearly any ferrous or non-ferrous alloy. Some other
casting processes will melt and pour super-alloys in a vacuum, but that is not typically done as a
sand casting. Some materials cannot be “worked”, and must be produced as a casting.

2. Low Tooling Cost:

The relatively low cost of tooling makes sand casting a process of choice for lower volume
needs. Patterns do wear so the material selected for the pattern (typically wood, plastic, or
metal) will depend on the expected usage quantity of the part being produced. Though not
necessarily cheaper in the short run, the use of machined (or “patternless”) molds may be a cost-
effective option for components with expected lower usage over a longer period of time.

3. Versatile – Size, Weight, and Shape:

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Sand castings can be produced in weights from ounces to 200+ tons. Through the use of cores,
internal structures can be cast in place. Shaped parts rely mainly on the imagination of the
designer. Most sand castings, however, will need at least some machined surfaces, either
because of innate tolerance limits of the process, or the need to mate with other components.

4. Any Quantity:
Because the tooling cost can be minimal, sand casting may be appropriate for a single piece
run. Alternatively, there are automotive components that are produced using this process, so it
may also be used in high volume applications. Other elements of design and tolerance are often
more important than quantity when selecting this as the preferred casting process.

5. Timing:
The casting process itself may be quicker than some others, like investment casting, but it is
important to consider the post-casting processes like machining that may be required when
computing total lead times.

Concerns With Sand Casting

1. Lower Dimensional Accuracy:

No-bake molding can deliver better dimensional accuracy and repeatability than green sand
molding, but this process will, on average, provide less precision than other common casting
processes.

2. Pattern Maintenance:
While of lower cost than tooling for other casting processes, there is still an art to pattern
creation. Patterns can be bulky so the storage must be managed; this is especially significant if
the casting is produced infrequently. Patternless molding can relieve some challenges of pattern
storage and maintenance.

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3. Surface Finish:
Sand castings tend to deliver a rougher surface finish than other casting processes. That point
Casting Process RMS Range

Die 20 – 120

Investment 60 – 200

Shell Mold 120 – 300

Centrifugal – Standard tooling 400 – 500

Centrifugal – Permanent Mold 20 – 300

Static – Permanent Mold 200 – 420

Normal Non-Ferrous Sand 300 – 560

Normal Ferrous Green Sand 560 – 900

may be moot if certain surfaces are machined anyway, or if surfaces in the as-cast condition are
acceptable. Below is a comparison of relative surface finishes that can be expected from various
casting process.
Sand casting is used for a variety of applications to produce a wide range of parts
including:
 air compressor pistons.
 bearings.
 blowers & impellers.
 bushings.
 cams.
 electronic equipment.
 engine crankcases.
 engine oil pans.

SHELL MOLDING

Shell molding, also known as shell-molding casting, is an expendable mold casting process that
uses a resin covered sand to form the mold. As compared to sand casting, this process has
better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor requirements. It is
used for small to medium parts that require high precision Shell molding was developed as a

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manufacturing process during the mid-20th century in Germany. It was invented by a German
engineer Johannes Croning. Shell mold casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting,
in that molten metal is poured into an expendable mold. However, in shell mold casting, the
mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The
pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A
reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while the disposable molds enable complex
geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand -resin
mixture, dump box, and molten metal.

Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly using
cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. Typical
parts are small-to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear housings, cylinder
heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.

The process of creating a shell mold consists of six steps:

1.Fine silica sand that is covered in a thin (3–6%) thermosetting phenolic resin and liquid
catalyst is dumped, blown, or shot onto a hot pattern. The pattern is usually made from cast
iron and is heated to 230 to 315 °C (450 to 600 °F). The sand is allowed to sit on the pattern for
a few minutes to allow the sand to partially cure.

2.The pattern and sand are then inverted so the excess sand drops free of the pattern, leaving
just the "shell". Depending on the time and temperature of the pattern the thickness of the
shell is 10 to 20 mm (0.4 to 0.8 in).

3.The pattern and shell together are placed in an oven to finish curing the sand. The shell now
has a tensile strength of 350 to 450 psi (2.4 to 3.1 MPa).

4.The hardened shell is then stripped from the pattern.

5.Two or more shells are then combined, via clamping or gluing using a thermoset adhesive, to
form a mold. This finished mold can then be used immediately or stored almost indefinitely.

6.For casting the shell mold is placed inside a flask and surrounded with shot, sand, or gravel to
reinforce the shell.

The machine that is used for this process is called a shell molding machine. It heats the pattern,
applies the sand mixture, and bakes the shell.

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Advantages-

1. Shell molding can be completely automated for mass production.

2. The high productivity, low labor costs, good surface finishes, and precision of the
process can more than pay for itself if it reduces machining costs.
3. There are few problems due to gases, because of the absence of moisture in the shell,
and the little gas that is still present easily escapes through the thin shell. When the
metal is poured some of the resin binder burns out on the surface of the shell, which
makes shaking out easy.
4. Complex shapes and fine details can be formed with very good surface finish, high
production rate, low labor cost (if automated).
5. Low tooling cost, Little scrap generated.
6. Very large parts and complex shapes can be produced.
7. Many materials option.
8. Low tooling and equipment cost.
9. Scrap can be recycled.
10. Short lead time possible.

Disadvantages-
The gating system must be part of the pattern because the entire mold is formed from the
pattern, which can be expensive.
The resin for the sand is expensive, although not much is required because only a shell is being
formed.
High equipment cost.
Poor material strength.
High porosity possible.

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Secondary machining often required.

High labor cost if done manually.

APPLICATION
Cylinder heads, connecting rods, Engine blocks and manifolds, machine bases.

INVESTMENT CASTING

Investment casting is an industrial process based on lost-wax casting, one of the oldest known
metal-forming techniques. The term "lost-wax casting" can also refer to modern investment
casting processes. Investment casting derives its name from the pattern being invested
(surrounded) with a refractory material. Many materials are suitable for investment casting;
examples are stainless steel alloys, brass, aluminum, carbon steel and glass . The material is
poured into a cavity in a refractory material that is an exact duplicate of the desired part. Due
to the hardness of refractory materials used, investment casting can produce products with
exceptional surface qualities, which can reduce the need for secondary machine processes.

Inlet-outlet cover of a valve for a nuclear power station produced using investment casting

The process can be used for both small castings of a few ounces and large castings weighing
several hundred pounds. It can be more expensive than die casting or sand casting, but per-unit
costs decrease with large volumes. Investment casting can produce complicated shapes that
would be difficult or impossible with other casting methods. It can also produce products with
exceptional surface qualities and low tolerances with minimal surface finishing or machining
required.

INVESTMENT CASTING PROCESS

Castings can be made from an original wax model (the direct method) or from wax replicas of
an original pattern that need not be made from wax (the indirect method). The following steps
describe the indirect process, which can take two to seven days to complete.

Produce a master pattern: An artist or mould-maker creates an original pattern from wax, clay,
wood, plastic, or another material. In recent years the production of patterns using 3D printing

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has become popular using either standard PLA filament or custom made 'casting wax' filament,
in which case one goes directly to step 5.

Create a mould: A mould, known as the master die, is made to fit the master pattern. If the
master pattern was made from steel, the master die can be cast directly from the pattern using
metal with a lower melting point. Rubber moulds can also be cast directly from the master
pattern. Alternatively, a master die can be machined independently—without creating a master
pattern.
Produce wax patterns: Although called wax patterns, pattern materials may also include plastic
and frozen mercury. Wax patterns can be produced in one of two ways. In one process, the wax
is poured into the mold and swished around until an even coating, usually about 3 mm (0.12 in)
thick, covers the inner surface of the mould. This is repeated until the desired pattern thickness
is reached. Another method involves filling the entire mould with molten wax and letting it cool
as a solid object.

If a core is required, there are two options: soluble wax or ceramic. Soluble wax cores are
designed to melt out of the investment coating with the rest of the wax pattern; ceramic cores
are removed after the product has hardened.

Assemble wax patterns: Multiple wax patterns can be created and assembled into one large
pattern to be cast in one batch pour. In this situation, patterns are attached to a wax sprue to
create a pattern cluster, or tree. To attach patterns, a heating tool is used to slightly melt
designated wax surfaces, which are then pressed against each other and left to cool and
harden. As many as several hundred patterns can be assembled into a tree. Wax patterns can
also be chased, which means parting lines or flashings are rubbed out using the heated metal
tool. Finally, patterns are dressed (by removing imperfections) to look like finished pieces.
Apply investment materials: The ceramic mould, known as the investment, is produced by
repeating a series of steps—coating, stuccoing, and hardening—until a desired thickness is
achieved. Coating involves dipping a pattern cluster into a slurry of fine refractory material and
then draining to create a uniform surface coating. Fine materials are used in this first step, also
called a prime coat, to preserve fine details from the mould. Stuccoing applies coarse ceramic
particles by dipping patterns into a fluidized bed, placing it in a rainfall -sander, or by applying
materials by hand. Hardening allows coatings to cure. These steps are repeated until the
investment reaches its required thickness—usually 5 to 15 mm (0.2 to 0.6 in). Investment
moulds are left to dry completely, which can take 16 to 48 hours. Drying can be accelerated by
applying a vacuum or minimizing environmental humidity. Investment moulds can also be
created by placing the pattern clusters into a flask and then pouring liquid investment material
from above. The flask is then vibrated to allow entrapped air to escape and help th e investment
material fill any small voids. Common refractory materials used to create the investments are:
silica, zircon, various Aluminum silicates, and alumina. Silica is usually used in the fused silica
form, but sometimes quartz is used because it is less expensive. Aluminum silicates are a

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mixture of alumina and silica, where commonly used mixtures have an alumina content from 42
to 72%; at 72% alumina the compound is known as mullite. During the primary coat(s), zircon -
based refractories are commonly used, because zirconium is less likely to react with the molten
metal. Prior to silica, a mixture of plaster and ground up old molds (chamotte) was used.[9] The
binders used to hold the refractory material in place include: ethyl silicate (alcohol -based and
chemically set), colloidal silica (water-based, also known as silica sol, set by drying), sodium
silicate, and a hybrid of these controlled for pH and viscosity.
Dewax: Once ceramic moulds have fully cured, they are turned upside -down and placed in a
furnace or autoclave to melt out and/or vaporize the wax. Most shell failures occur at this point
because the waxes used have a thermal expansion coefficient that is much greater than the
investment material surrounding it—as the wax is heated it expands and introduces stress. To
minimize these stresses the wax is heated as rapidly as possible so that outer wax surfaces can
melt and drain quickly, making space for the rest of the wax to expand. In certain situations,
holes may be drilled into the mold before heating to help reduce these stresses. Any wax that
runs out of the mold is usually recovered and reused.
Burnout preheating: The mold is then subjected to a burnout, which heats the mold to
between 870 °C and 1095 °C to remove any moisture and residual wax, and to sinter the mold.
Sometimes this heating is also used to preheat the mold before pouring, but other times the
mould is allowed to cool so that it can be tested. Preheating allows the metal to stay liquid
longer so that it can better fill all mould details and increase dimensional accuracy. If the mold
is left to cool, any cracks found can be repaired with ceramic slurry or special cements.

Pouring: The investment mold is then placed open-side up into a tub filled with sand. The metal
may be gravity poured or forced by applying positive air pressure or other forces. Vacuum
casting, tilt casting, pressure assisted pouring and centrifugal casting are methods that use
additional forces and are especially useful when moulds contain thin sections that wo uld be
otherwise be difficult to fill.

Divesting: The shell is hammered, media blasted, vibrated, waterjet, or chemically dissolved
(sometimes with liquid nitrogen) to release the casting. The sprue is cut off and recycled. The
casting may then be cleaned up to remove signs of the casting process, usually by grinding.

Finishing: After grinding, the completed casting is then subject to finishing. This usually goes
further than grinding, with impurities and negatives being removed via hand tooling and
welding. In the case that the part needs additional straightening, this process i s usually carried
out by hydraulic straightening presses, which bring the product in line with its tolerance .

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The investment shell for casting a turbocharger rotor

A view of the interior investment shows the smooth surface finish and high level of detail

The completed workpiece

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Advantages-
1. Excellent surface finish
2. High dimensional accuracy
3. Extremely intricate parts are castable
4. Almost any metal can be cast
5. No flash or parting lines
Disadvantages-
1. It can be difficult to cast objects requiring cores.
2. This process is expensive, is usually limited to small casting, and presents some
difficulties where cores are involved.
3. Holes cannot be smaller than 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) and should be no deeper than about 1.5
times the diameter.
4. Investment castings require longer production cycles compared to other casting
processes

Application-
Investment casting is used in the aerospace and power generation industries to produce
turbine blades with complex shapes or cooling systems. Blades produced by investment casting
can include single-crystal (SX), directionally solidified (DS), or conventional equiaxed blades.
Investment casting is also widely used by firearms manufacturers to fabricate firearm receivers,
triggers, hammers, and other precision parts at low cost.
Other industries that use standard investment-cast parts include military, medical, commercial
and automotive.

PERMANENT-MOLD CASTING

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Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds ("permanent
molds"), usually made from metal. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold,
however gas pressure or a vacuum are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting
process, called slush casting, produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are Aluminum,
magnesium, and copper alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and
steel are also cast in graphite molds.

Gravity process-

The gravity process begins by preheating the mold to 150–200 °C (300–400 °F) to ease the flow
and reduce thermal damage to the casting. The mold cavity is then coated with a refractory
material or a mold wash, which prevents the casting from sticking to the mold and prolongs the
mold life. Any sand or metal cores are then installed and the mold is clamped shut. Molten
metal is then poured into the mold. Soon after solidification the mold is opened and the casting
removed to reduce chances of hot tears. The process is then started all over again, but
preheating is not required because the heat from the previous casting is adequate and the
refractory coating should last several castings. Because this process is usually carried out on
large production run work-pieces automated equipment is used to coat the mold, pour the
metal, and remove the casting. The metal is poured at the lowest practical temperature in
order to minimize cracks and porosity. The pouring temperature can range greatly depending
on the casting material; for instance, zinc alloys are poured at approximately 370 °C (698 °F),
while Gray iron is poured at approximately 1,370 °C (2,500 °F). Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages-

The main advantages are the reusable mold, good surface finish, good dimensional accuracy,
and high production rates. Typical tolerances are 0.4 mm for the first 25 mm (0.015 in for the
first inch) and 0.02 mm for each additional centimeter (0.002 in per in); if the dimension crosses
the parting line add an additional 0.25 mm (0.0098 in). Typical surface finishes are 2.5 to 7.5 μm
(100–250 μin) RMS. A draft of 2 to 3° is required. Wall thicknesses are limited to 3 to 50 mm
(0.12 to 1.97 in). Typical part sizes range from 100 g to 75 kg (several ounces to 150 lb). Other
advantages include the ease of inducing directional solidification by changing the mold wall

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thickness or by heating or cooling portions of the mold. The fast cooling rates created by using a
metal mold results in a finer grain structure than sand casting. Retractable metal cores can be
used to create undercuts while maintaining a quick action mold.
Disadvantages-

High tooling cost, limited to low-melting-point metals, and short mold life. The high tooling
costs make this process uneconomical for small production runs. When the process is used to
cast steel or iron the mold life is extremely short. For lower melting point metals, the mold life
is longer but thermal fatigue and erosion usually limit the life to 10,000 to 120,000 cycles. The
mold life is dependent on four factors: the mold material, the pouring temperature, the mold
temperature, and the mold configuration. Molds made from gray cast iron can be more
economical to produce but have short mold lives. On the other hand, molds made from H13
tool steel may have a mold life several times greater. The pouring temperature is dependent on
the casting metal, but the higher the pouring temperature the shorter the mold life. A high
pouring temperature can also induce shrinkage problems and create longer cycle ti mes. If the
mold temperature is too low misruns are produced, but if the mold temperature is too high
then the cycle time is prolonged and mold erosion is increased. Large differences in section
thickness in the mold or casting can decrease mold life as we ll.

Application-

Typical products are components such as gears, splines, wheels, gear housings, pipe fittings,
fuel injection housings, and automotive engine pistons.

VACUUM CASTING
Vacuum casting is a casting process for elastomers using a vacuum to draw the liquid material into the
mold. This process is used when air entrapment is a problem, there are intricate details or undercuts, or
if the material is fiber or wire reinforced. The main disadvantage to this process is the high price for the
equipment.

Process

The process starts by placing a two-piece silicone mold in a vacuum chamber. The raw material is mixed
with degassed and then poured into the mold. The vacuum is then released and the mold removed from
the chamber. Finally, the casting is cured in an oven and the mold removed to release the completed
casting. The silicone mold can be reused. In some machines the chamber where the material is mixed a
pressure can be applied to increase the pressure differential between the mold cavity and the mixing
chamber.

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DIE CASTING

Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under high
pressure into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which
have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mold during the process.
Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically Zinc, Copper, Aluminum,
Magnesium, Lead, Pewter, and tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a
hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.

The casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to limit
the process to high-volume production. Manufacture of parts using die casting is relatively
simple, involving only four main steps, which keeps the incremental cost per item low. It is
especially suited for a large quantity of small- to medium-sized castings, which is why die
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casting produces more castings than any other casting process. Die castings are characterized
by a very good surface finish (by casting standards) and dimensional consistency.

An engine block with Aluminum and magnesium die castings Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages-

Excellent dimensional accuracy (dependent on casting material, but typically 0.1 mm for the
first 2.5 cm (0.004 inch for the first inch) and 0.02 mm for each additional centimeter (0.002
inch for each additional inch) Smooth cast surfaces (Ra 1–2.5 micrometers or 0.04–0.10 thou
rms). Thinner walls can be cast as compared to sand and permanent mold casting
(approximately 0.75 mm or 0.030 in). Inserts can be cast-in (such as threaded inserts, heating
elements, and high Reduces or eliminates secondary machining operations. Rapid production
rates. Casting tensile strength as high as 415 megapascals (60 ksi). Casting of low fluidity metals.
Disadvantage-

The main disadvantage to die casting is the very high capital cost. Both the casting equipment
required and the dies and related components are very costly, as compared to most other
casting processes. Therefore, to make die casting an economic process, a large production
volume is needed. Other disadvantages are that the process is limited to high -fluidity metals,
and casting weights must be between 30 grams (1 oz) and 10 kg (20 lb). In the standard die
casting process, the final casting will have a small amount of porosity. This prevents any heat
treating or welding, because the heat causes the gas in the pores to expand, which causes
micro-cracks inside the part and exfoliation of the surface. Thus a relate d disadvantage of die
casting is that it is only for parts in which softness is acceptable. Parts needing hardening
(through hardening or case hardening) and tempering are not cast in dies.

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Hot-chamber die casting

Schematic of a hot-chamber machine

Hot-chamber die casting, also known gooseneck machines, rely upon a pool of molten metal to
feed the die. At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the machine is retracted, which allows
the molten metal to fill the "gooseneck". The pneumatic- or hydraulic-powered piston then
forces this metal out of the gooseneck into the die. The advantages of this system include fast
cycle times (approximately 15 cycles a minute) and the convenience of melting the metal in the
casting machine. The disadvantages of this system are that it is limited to use with low-melting
point metals and that aluminum cannot be used because it picks up some of the iron while in
the molten pool. Therefore, hot-chamber machines are primarily used with zinc-, tin-, and lead-
based alloys.
Cold-chamber die casting

A schematic of a cold-chamber die casting machine.

These are used when the casting alloy cannot be used in hot-chamber machines; these include
aluminum, zinc alloys with a large composition of aluminum, magnesium and copper. The
process for these machines starts with melting the metal in a separate furnace.[14] Then a
precise amount of molten metal is transported to the cold-chamber machine where it is fed
into an unheated shot chamber (or injection cylinder). This shot is then driven into the die by a

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hydraulic or mechanical piston. The biggest disadvantage of this system is the slower cycle time
due to the need to transfer the molten metal from the furnace to the cold-chamber machine.

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Centrifugal casting or roto casting is a casting technique that is typically used to cast thin-walled
cylinders. It is typically used to cast materials such as metals, glass, and concrete. A high quality
is attainable by control of metallurgy and crystal structure. Unlike most other casting
techniques, centrifugal casting is chiefly used to manufacture rotationally symmetric stock
materials in standard sizes for further machining, rather than shaped parts tailored to a
particular end-use. Typical materials that can be cast are iron, steel, stainless steels, glass, and
alloys of aluminum, copper and nickel.

Features of centrifugal casting

Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness and diameter.
Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same mold.
Eliminates the need for cores.
Good mechanical properties due to the grain structure formed by centrifugal action.

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Process-

In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated continuously at high speeds (300 to 3000
rpm) as the molten metal is poured. The molten metal spreads along the inside mold wall,
where it solidifies after cooling. The casting is usually a fine -grained casting with an especially
fine-grained outer diameter, due to the rapid cooling at the surface of the mold. Lighter
impurities and inclusions move towards the inside diameter and can be machined away
following the casting.
Casting machines may be either horizontal or vertical -axis. Horizontal axis machines are
preferred for long, thin cylinders, vertical machines for rings and bearings.

Castings usually solidify from the outside in. This directional solidification improves some
metallurgical properties. Often the inner and outermost layers are removed and only the
intermediary columnar zone is used.

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Centrifugal casting

Application-
Typical parts made by this process are pipes, flywheels, cylinder liners, and other parts that are
axis-symmetric. It is notably used to cast cylinder liners and sleeve valves for piston engines,
parts which could not be reliably manufactured otherwise.

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General design considerations of casting are as follows:

1. Design of component in compression than in tension.

2. Use of External devices for strengthen the part under tension.
3. Provision of Fillet Radius.
4. Avoid abrupt changes in the cross-section.
5. Avoid Concentration of Metal at the Junctions.
6. Avoid Very Thin Sections.
7. Shot Blast the Parts wherever Possible.

1. Design of component in compression than in tension.

Always Keep the Stressed Areas of the Part in Compression Cast iron has more compressive
strength than its tensile strength. Hence, design the component such that the stressed area
become under compression for the better performance.

2. Use of External devices for strengthen the part under tension:

When tensile stresses are unavoidable, a clamping device such as a tie rod or a bearing cap as
shown in Fig should be considered. The clamping device relieves the cast iron components from
tensile stresses.

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3. Provision of Fillet Radius:

Round All External Corners, it has two advantages - it increases the endurance limit of the
component and reduces the formation of brittle chilled edges. When the metal in the corner
cools faster than the metal adjacent to the corner, brittle chilled edges are formed due to iron
carbide

4. Avoid abrupt changes in the cross-section:

Abrupt changes in the cross-section result in high stress concentration. If the thickness is to be
varied at all, the change should be gradual as shown in Fig. Wherever Possible, the Section
Thickness throughout should be held Uniform as Compatible with overall design considerations.

5. Avoid Concentration of Metal at the Junctions:

At the junction as shown there is a concentration of metal. Even after the metal on the surface
solidifies, the central portion still remains in the molten stage, with the result that a shrinkage
cavity or blowhole may appear at the center as shown in fig (a).

There are two ways to avoid the concentration of metal. One is to provide a cored opening in
webs and ribs, as shown in Fig. (b).
Alternatively, one can stagger the ribs and webs, as shown in Fig.(c)

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6. Avoid Very Thin Sections:

If the thickness of a cast iron component is calculated from strength considerations, it is often
too small.

In such cases, the thickness should be increased to certain practical proportions. The minimum
section thickness depends upon the process of casting, such as sand casting, permanent mould
casting or die casting.
The minimum thickness for a grey cast iron component is about 7 mm for parts up to 500 mm
long, which gradually increases to 20 mm for large and heavy castings.

7. Shot Blast the Parts wherever Possible:

The shot blasting process improves the endurance limit of the component, particularly in case
of thin sections.

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Types of furnace used for casting process-

In metal casting, the required heat to be exerted to the metal so as to reach its melting point is
applied through the furnaces. A furnace is used to melt the metals in initial stages of the
metallurgical process. There are different types of melting furnaces used in casting, and each
furnace uses various technology. Foundries design the melting furnace in a particular way so
that it consumes less heat and fuel as possible in order to melt the metal.
1. Cupola Furnace

This type of high, cylindrically shaped furnace i s one of the oldest melting furnaces used in
casting applications. The inside of the cupola is lined up with clay, bricks, or blocks, that protect
the inside of the furnace from higher levels of heat, abrasion, and even oxidation. For melting
the metal, foundry operators put several layers of ferroalloys, coke and limestone in the
furnace. The sedimentary rock used as a construction material will react with the metal, which
makes the impurities in the furnace to float up to melting metal’s surface.

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2. Induction Furnace

As the name implies, these melting furnaces use induction technology with alternating electric
currents to apply the required heat to melt the metal. The electric furnace used for melting
metals makes the process energy efficient when compared to other types of melting furnaces.
Most of the global foundries use induction furnace instead of the cupola to melt brass or cast
iron. Besides that, induction furnaces are preferable for melting an array of metals including
steel, iron, aluminum, and copper. Since it uses induction over combustion, the thermal energy
required to melt the metal will be adequate; thus, it will cost savings to the die casters. The
furnace can melt from less than 1 KG range to up to 100 tons.

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3. Open Hearth Furnace

Foundries use the hearth furnace to melt nonferrous metals in smaller quantities. It uses
atomized heavy oil or natural gas in order to create heat with which to melt the material. The
open-hearth process is also used as means to raise the heat inside a metallurgical furnace that
makes use of the waste or unused heat forced out of the furnace. The waste heat then redirects
furnace fumes via brickwork that forms a checker. The hearth furnace is used primarily in
industrial applications as an oxygen-based furnace or an electric arc furnace.

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Casting defects
Pinholes, Subsurface blowhole, Open holes, Open shrinkage, Closed shrinkage ,Cuts and washes
,Fusion ,Run out, Swells ,Drops ,Rat tails, veins and buckles ,Metal penetration, Hot tear/crack
,Hot/Hard spots ,Cold shut/lap ,Misruns ,Cold shots ,Slag inclusion (scab) ,Shift/mismatch ,Flash,
fin and burrs ,Warping
 Gas porosity casting defects and causes
Gas porosity occurs when the metal traps gas (most often nitrogen, oxygen or hydrogen) during
casting.
When the casting cools and solidifies, bubbles form because the solid form of the metal cannot
hold as much gas as the liquid form. These bubbles appear on a casting as rounded, circular
cavities or holes.
There are three types of casting defects related to gas porosity:

1. Pinholes

Pinholes, also sometimes referred to as porosities, are very tiny holes (about 2 mm) usually
found in the cope (upper) part of the mold.
They usually appear in large numbers together, either at the surface or just below the surface
of the casting. They are always visible to the naked eye and don’t require equipment to identify.

2. Subsurface blowhole
Blowholes, or simply blows, are larger cavities than pinholes
A subsurface blowhole appears on the inside of a cast and usually isn’t visible until after
machining.
Subsurface blowholes can be difficult to detect before machining, requiring harmonic,
ultrasonic, magnetic or x-ray analysis.

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3. Open holes
These blowholes appear on the surface of the cast and are easier to detect than subsurface
blowholes.
Causes and prevention of gas porosity
There are several causes of cavity defects
Poor venting of mold and cores
Insufficient drying of mold and cores
How can you prevent gas porosity?
Scars are shallow blows that appear on a flat surface, while blisters are scars covered with a
thin layer of metal.
casting defects Excessive moisture content of molding sand
Inadequate gas permeability of molding sand
Potential solutions include:
Incorporate good fluxing and melting practices: melt metal in a vacuum, in an environment of
low-solubility gases or under a flux that prevents contact with the air
Increase gas permeability of sand: coarser sands have a higher permeability
Increase permeability of mold and cores. Allow air and gas to escape from the mold cavity
Dry out molds and cores before use and store dry
Increase rate of solidification by reducing metal temperature during casting
Shrinkage casting defects and causes
Shrinkage occurs because metals are less dense as a liquid than a solid.

A shrinkage cavity is a depression in a casting which occurs during the solidification process.
Shrinkage porosity appears with angular edges, compared to the round surfaces of gas porosity.
Cavities might also be paired with dendritic fractures or cracks.

Large shrinkage cavities can undermine the integrity of the casting and may cause it to
eventually break under stress.
Shrinkage can result in two types of casting defects.
4. Open shrinkage defects
These are open to the atmosphere. Air compensated as the shrinkage cavity forms.

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Pipes are open shrinkage defects that form at the surface and burrow into the casting. Caved
surfaces are shallow, open shrinkage defects that form across the surface of the casting.

5. Closed shrinkage defects

Also known as shrinkage porosity, closed shrinkage defects form within the casting. Macro
shrinkage can be viewed with the naked eye, but micro shrinkage cannot.
Closed shrinkage defects usually appear at the top of hot spots, or isolated pools of hot liquid.
Prevent shrinkage cavities by improving casting structure
Alloys always shrink when changing from molten to solid. This is because the density of a
casting alloy in the molten state is lower than that in the solid state.
You should expect some shrinkage during solidification. Factor a shrinkage allowance into the
pattern design before casting.
casting defects You can prevent shrinkage casting defects by improving the overall casting
structure:
Design a running (gate) system with risers that ensure a continuous flow of molten metal
Increase local heat dissipation by inserting internal chills, cooling ribs or cooling coils
Reduce casting temperature to limit the total volume deficit
Mold material casting defects and causes
Mold material casting defects are related to the mold material, which is most commonly sand.
You and your supplier can typically address these casting defects and causes by modifying the
mold.

6. Cuts and washes

Cuts and washes are areas of excess metal. These appear when the molten metal erodes the
molding sand.
A cut appears as a low projection along the surface of the drag face, decreasing in height as it
extends from one side of the casting to the other.
Causes and prevention of cuts and washes
Cuts and washes can be caused by molten metal flowing at a high velocity, causing too much
metal to flow through the gate.

casting defects You can prevent cuts and washes easiest by:
Designing the gating system properly
Improving mold and core strength
Adding more binders to the facing and core sand

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7. Fusion

Fusion occurs when sand grains fuse with molten metal. It appears as a thin crust with a brittle,
glassy appearance firmly adhered to the casting
casting defectsCauses and prevention of fusion
Two main factors can cause fusion:
Low refractoriness of clay or sand
Too high pouring temperature of molten metal
Refractoriness is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid so it
doesn’t fuse with the metal. Silica sand has the highest refractoriness.
Improving the refractoriness of the molding material and/or reducing the pouring temperature
of the molten metal will help prevent fusion.

8. Run out
Run out is when liquid metal leaks out of the mold, leading to an incomplete or missing casting.

casting defects
A faulty mold or flask is responsible for run out.
Prevention of run out and incomplete castings

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To prevent this casting defect, design the casting mold with precision. Inspect and replace any
defective molds before casting.
High temperatures can lead to excess wear and tear of the mold. Use quality raw materials for
your mold that can resist high temperatures.

9. Swells
Swells are an enlargement of the casting. Swells typically take on the shape of a slight, smooth
bulge on the vertical face of castings.

casting defects
Causes and prevention of swells
Swell is usually caused by improper or soft ramming of the mold or a low strength mold.
Molds should be built to withstand liquid metal pressure. Otherwise, the mold wall may give
way or move back, causing swelling.
Using a strong, properly rammed mold prevents swells.

10. Drops
Drops occur when pieces of sand fall into metal casting when it’s still liquid. Drops appear as an
irregularly shaped projection on the cope (top) surface of a casting.
Causes and prevention of dropscasting defects
Four potential causes for drops and their preventions include:

Low sand strength: Use sand of a higher strength if this your culprit
Soft ramming: Provide harder ramming
Insufficient fluxing of molten metal: Properly fluxing molten metal removes impurities
Insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in the cope: Reinforce sand projections using
nails or gaggers to fix this issue.

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11. Rat tails, veins and buckles casting defects

Rat tails, or veins, appear as an irregular line or crack on the casting, when the surface of the
molding sand buckles up. Rat tails usually occur on the surface of the mold bottom, an area
covered with molten material.
Buckles are a more severe form of rat tails.
Causes and prevention of rat tails and buckles
Rat tails and buckles occur when excessive heat of the metal causes the sand to expand. This
may be caused by:
Poor expansion properties of the sand: Add combustible additives to sand.
A hot pouring temperature: Reduce pouring temperature of metal.
Poor mold design: Large and flat sections are more prone to rat tails. The mold also should not
be too hard, as it must allow for proper expansion.

12. Metal penetration

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Metal penetration occurs when liquid metal penetrates gaps in the molding sand. The
penetration is visible to the naked eye as a rough and uneven surface finish of the casting.
Causes and prevention of metal penetration
Metal penetration is due to:
casting defects Use of sand with low strength and high permeability
Use of large or coarse sand grain: the course the sand grains, the more severe the metal
penetration
Lack of mold wash
Soft ramming of sand
Prevent metal penetration by fixing these areas. Use high strength, small grain size, low
permeability and hard ramming of sand. Ensure a protective barrier against metal penetration
by coating the surface of molds with a mold wash.
You can typically remove metal penetration by grinding down the rough surface of the casting.
Metallurgical casting defects and causes
There are two types of metallurgical defects to watch out for.

13. Hot tear/crack

Cracks appear in the form of irregular crevices in a branched pattern

casting defects
Some cracks are obvious and easily seen, while others can require magnification.
Cracks occur as the casting cools, towards the end of solidification.
Causes and prevention of hot tears and cracks
If the solidifying metal does not have sufficient strength to resist te nsile forces during
solidification, hot tears will appear.Hot tears are mostly caused by poor mold design. Modifying

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the mold to improve collapsibility can easily resolve these issues. Hot/hard spot

14. Hot/Hard spots

Hot spots are spots that are harder than the surrounding area. This is because they cooled
more quickly than the surrounding material. casting defects
Hard spots can interfere with machining and increase tool wear
Causes and prevention of hot spots
Hot spots are a direct result of improper cooling practices. There are two potential solutions if
hot spots are your problem:
Start by correcting cooling practice
Also consider changing the metal’s chemical composition
Pouring casting defects and causes
Pouring metal defects arise during the process of pouring metal into the mold. If you have a
pouring metal defect, it will fall into one of these categories:

15. Cold shut/lap

Cold shut is a type of surface defect. You’ll see a line or crack with a round edge on the casting
surface.
This defect is visible to the naked eye and often results in rejecting the cast, as it creates a weak
spot.

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Causes and prevention of cold shut

When molten metal enters the mold from two gates, the streams will meet at a junction.
casting defects Low temperatures can prevent fusion at the junction, causing the streams to
solidify before fusion, creating a cold shut.
Cold shut is usually a result of a lack of fluidity of the molten metal, or a poor design of the
gating system.
The best way to prevent cold shuts is to increase fluidity of the molten metal. This can be done
in a few ways:
Optimize gating system to minimize narrow cross-paths and ensure short flow paths
Increase the pouring temperature to prevent premature solidification
Improve gas permeability of the mold (through coarser grain size, etc.)
16. Misruns are closely related to cold shuts
Misruns occur when the liquid metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity
before freezing and solidifying.
casting defectsThe liquid metal does not completel y fill the mold cavity. The misrun is the
unfilled portion or space in the mold.

Causes and prevention of misruns

The reasons for premature solidification are similar to those for cold shut. If you have a misrun,
check:
Mold design, Gating system design and , Molten metal fluidity
16. Cold shots

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Splattering during pouring of a liquid can cause solid globules to form.

casting defects as these globules freeze, they become entrapped in the casting.
Cold shots are typically ball, drop or pearl shaped and loose ly attached to the metal\\\\\\
Causes and prevention of cold shots
To prevent splattering and cold shots, consider
Modifying pouring procedures to minimize turbulence
Adjusting gating system designs to reduce gate speed

17. Slag inclusion (scab)

These irregular metallic crusts are found on the casting surface. Scabs are typically only a few
millimeters thick but can be seen by the naked eye. They usually have sharp edges, irregular
shapes and are firmly bonded to the casting.
casting defects
Scabs are closely related to rat tails and they usually appear together. Removal of scabs will
typically reveal a rat tail underneath.
Causes and prevention of slag inclusion
Slag inclusion is caused when molten metal containing slag particles is poured into the mold
cavities and solidifies.
Preventing slag inclusion is a simple fix. Remove slag particles from the molten metal before
pouring it into the mold cavity.
You can remove slag by:
Melting the metal with a flux, in a vacuum or in an inert atmosphere
Adding ingredients to the mixture to cause slag to float to the top where you can easily see and
remove it before pouring. Or use a special ladle that pours metal from the bottom.
Adding a ceramic filter into the gating system
Casting shape defects and causes
These types of casting defects are related to the overall shape of the final casting.

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18. Shift/mismatch

Mold shift is due to misalignment of upper (cope) and lower (drag) part of the mold. Mold shift
is usually reflected as a horizontal displacement.
casting defects
Core shift is similar to mold shift, but it’s the core that is misaligned, not the mold. Core shift is
usually reflected as a vertical displacement.
Causes and prevention of shift
Some causes of shift can include:
Loose box pins
Inaccurate pattern dowel pins or
Carelessness in placing the cope on the drag, causing misalignment
If you’re experiencing shift, try checking the match plate pattern mounting and alignment.
Make sure to use proper molding box and closing pins.

19. Flash, fin and burrs

Flash is one of the most frequently occurring casting defects and also a common injection
molding defect. Flash, also known as casting fin or burrs, is any unwanted and excess material
attached to a cast. It’s typically a thin sheet of metal that forms at the parting faces. Flash is a
waste material that turns into dross after being re-melted.

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Causes and prevention of flash, fin and burrs

Flash on the casting surface is due to a crack or gap on the core surface. Insufficient weight on
the mold or improper clamping of the flask can lead to a gap.
casting defects
Remedy this issue by reassembling the mold and cores. There should be enough weight on the
top part of the mold so that the two parts fit together tightly.
Flash can vary from minor to very serious. If it’s not too serious, manufacturers can remove
flash by breaking it off with a hammer or pliers and filing it down to the parting line. However,
this can be a costly process.

20. Warping

Warping is an unwanted casting deformity that can occur over time, which results in a change
in the dimensions of the final product. It can happen during or after solidification.
casting defects
Causes and prevention of warping
Warping is typically a result of different rates of solidifications of different sections, which
causes stress in adjoining walls. Large and flat sections are more prone to warping.
Normalizing heat treatment can remove residual stress in iron casting. A straightening between
quench and aging processes might also be required for aluminum casting.
Conclusion
Knowledge of casting defects and causes is essential to managing casting quality.
You should set clear defect tolerances and quality expectations with your suppliers before
production to help them understand your quality standards.
Defect tolerance can vary between products and types of casting defects. Determining your
tolerance for these casting defects can help your supplier better understand your standards and
prevent future misunderstandings and quality issues.
Ultimately, the manufacturer must strictly control quality of each casting process. Experienced
importers rely on quality control inspections to limit casting defects in their products before
they leave the factory.

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