INORGANIC CHEMISTRY I (Iche 2041)

1.Overview of Atomic Theory and Periodic Table

✓ Introduction
✓ Some principles of quantum mechanics
✓ Radial and Angular wave functions and the
quantum numbers
✓ The periodic table and chemical periodicity
 1.Atomic Theories and Periodic tale
Discreteness of Matter Continuity of Matter
Democritus Aristotle
Matter is discrete Matter is continuous
There is a limit to which matter is Matter is infinitely divisible
broken
Believed in the existence of atoms Rejected the idea of atoms
(460 - 370 B.C) (384 – 322 B.C)

❑The word atom has its origin from the Greek word
“Atomos” which means indivisible.
❑Shortcomings of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

✓ Atoms are indivisible.

✓ Atoms of the same element have the same mass.

❑ Modern Atomic Theory: Correction to Daltons Atomic Theory

✓ Atom contain subatomic particles (protons, electrons and

neutrons).----Discovery of subatomic particles

✓ All atoms of the same element have the same no of

protons/electrons but may have different no of

neutrons/mass. ----Existence of Isotopes

 Law of Conservation of mass
➢It means that the mass of the reactants is exactly
equal to the mass of the products in any chemical
reaction.

mass of reactants = mass of products.

➢This law is also called the law of indestructibility of
matter.

➢A balanced chemical equation is in accordance with

The law of conservation of mass.
 Law of Definite Composition
➢ A chemical compound, no matter what its origin or its
method of preparation, always has the same composition;
i.e., the same proportions by mass of constituent elements.

✓ A pure compound is always composed of the same elements

combined in a definite ratio by mass.

✓ For example, water (H2O) is composed of hydrogen and

oxygen only. These elements are always in the proportion of
11.19% hydrogen to 88.81% oxygen by mass and in the
proportion 2 : 1 by volume.
 Law of multiple proportions
❑States that when two different compounds are formed
from the same elements, the masses of one of the
elements in the two compounds, compared to a given
mass of the other element, is in a small whole number
ratio.

✓ If two elements form more than a single compound, the

masses of one element combined with a fixed mass of
the second are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
 The structure of the atom
❑An atom is the basic unit of an element that can enter into
chemical composition.

❑Atom consists of nucleus (the atoms central part., which is

positively charged and contains most of the atoms mass; and
an electron a very light and charged particle that exists in
the region around the positively charged nucleus.
 Discovery of Electron
❑Discovered by J.J. Thomson.

✓Using a gas discharge tube experiment.

✓Electron--negatively charged particles

 Discovery of Electron
❑J.J. Thomson determined the charge to mass ratio of
these particles (electrons).

❑Robert Millikan’s, in his oil drop experiment,

determined the charge of electron to be -1.62X10-19
C per electron

❑Milliken calculate the mass of the electron as

 Discovery of Nucleus
❑Discovered by Ernest Rutherford (British physicist)
using alpha particle scattering experiment.

✓Using very thin foils of gold and other metals as

targets from particles from a radioactive source.
Rutherford’s Conclusion
❑ Since most of the α-particles passed through the gold
foil undeflected, most of the space in an atom is empty.
❑ Some of the α-particles were deflected by small angles.
This indicated the presence of a heavy positive centre in
the atom, which Rutherford named the nucleus.
❑ Only a few particles (1 in about a million) were either
deflected by a very large angle or deflected back. This
confirmed that the space occupied by the heavy positive
centre must be very small.
 Discovery of neutron
❑Discovered by an English physicist James Chadwick.

✓ Using bombarded atoms of beryllium and other

elements with alpha particle experiments when
beryllium metal is irradiated with alpha rays, a strongly
penetrated radiation is obtained from the metal.

✓ When beryllium nuclei struck by alpha particles

neutrons are knocked out.

✓ Neutron has a mass of 1.675 × 10–27 kg.

 Discovery of the proton
❑E. Goldstein, using perforated cathode (cathode with
holes) gas discharge tube

✓mass of proton , m= 1.664x10-24g

✓The mass of proton is about 1837 times heavier than

an electron.
 Electronic structure of atoms
Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
❑Form of energy that is produced by oscillating electric and
magnetic disturbance, or by the movement of electrically
charged particles traveling through a vacuum or matter.

❑A light wave (EMR) is characterized by:

✓ Wave length (λ) , Frequency(ν), Amplitude (or intensity)

✓ Wave number

Where c = Speed (Velocity of the radiation) = 3 x 108 m/s

Regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
 Exercise
The yellow light given off by a sodium lamp has a
wavelength of 589 nm. What is the frequency of this
radiation?
❑When copper is bombarded with high-energy
electrons, X rays are emitted. Calculate the energy
(in joules) associated with the photons if the
wavelength of the X rays is 0.154 nm.
 Photoelectric effect
❑ Ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal or
from another material when light shine on it.

❑Einstein used the photon concept to explain the

photoelectric effect. suggested that an electron
ejected from a metal when it struck by a single
photon which caries energy of E=hv.
❑ De Broglie (1924) reasoned that e- is both particle and
wave.

What is the de Broglie wavelength (in nm) associated

with a 2.5 g Ping-Pong ball traveling at 15.6 m/s?
 Atomic Models
❑ Atoms are too small to be observed directly. Hence, it is better to
develop a tentative mental picture (model) of the atomic concept.

❑ The ideas about atoms have changed many times.

❑ But, at present we can reduce these ideas into five models:

✓ Dalton’s Model,

✓ Thomson’s Model,

✓ Rutherford’s Model,

✓ Bohr’s Model, and the Quantum

✓ Mechanical Model.
 Dalton’s Atomic Model
❑He thought of atoms as solid indestructible spheres. He
called it the billiard ball model.

Thomson Model
❑ Atoms contain electrons. It is sometimes called the plum-
pudding model. Thomson proposed thought that electrons
were embedded inside a positively charged sphere, just like
plums in a pudding. Today we might call Thomson’s model
the chocolate chip ice-cream model.
 Rutherford Model
❑Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937), a former student of
Thomson, performed one of the classic experiments of
scientific history.

❑He bombarded different types of matter with high-energy,

positively charged alpha particles----discovery of nucleus).

❑These results showed Rutherford that the Thomson model

of the atom was not valid.

❑Atom has a small, dense, positively charged nucleus around

which electrons whirl at high speeds and at relatively long
distances from it.
 Rutherford Model
❑He compared the structure of an atom with the solar system,

(nucleus corresponds to the sun, while the electrons

correspond to the planets). This picture of the atom is also

called the planetary atom. In other words, Rutherford gave

us the nuclear model of the atom.

❑He did not know how the electrons were arranged outside

the nucleus.
 Bohr Model
❑In 1913, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885–1962)
proposed an atomic model in which the electrons moved
around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits.
❑He assumed the electrons to be moving around the nucleus
in a circular orbit as the planets move around the sun. Based
on the Rutherford's atomic model, Bohr made the following
modifications:
✓ The electrons in an atom can exist only in a restricted
number of stable orbits with energy levels in which they
neither absorb nor emit energy.
✓When an electron moves between orbits it absorbs or emits
energy. When an electron jumps from lower to higher states
it absorbs a fixed amount of energy. When an electron falls
from a higher (excited) state to a lower (ground) state it
emits a fixed amount of energy.
✓ The electrons move around the nucleus in energy levels.
✓The maximum number of electrons= 2n2, where n is equal to
the main energy level .
 The Quantum Mechanical Model
Exercise

✓ If particles have wavelike motion, why don’t we

observe that motion in the macroscopic world?

✓ If electron possess particle nature it should be possible

to locate electron. How can an electron be located?

✓ Is there any wave associated with a moving elephant?

Share your ideas with the rest of the class.
➢Macroscopic objects do exhibit a wavelike motion, but the
wavelength is too small for humans to perceive. Though it is
known that electrons possess particle nature, they are
microscopic particles which move with a very high speed in
which it is very difficult to trace their exact locations.
➢This is the reason why people talk about the high probability
region of finding an electron. A wave is associated with any
object, even a moving elephant, but one can’t observe it for
the reasons as same mentioned for macroscopic objects.
❑ Bohr’s model was very important because it introduced the
idea of quantized energy states for electrons in atoms. This
feature is incorporated in our current model of the atom,
the quantum mechanical model of the atom.
❑ Sophisticated mathematical description of atomic structure
based on the wave properties of subatomic particles is
called wave mechanics or quantum mechanics.
❑ Austrian physicist Erwin Scrödinger developed a model of
the H atom based on the wave nature of the electron in the
late 1920s.
❑ Mathematical equations describing the nature of electron
waves in atoms are fundamental to the modern picture of
the atom.
❑ The wave equations that are acceptable solutions to the
Schrödinger equation are called wave functions.
❑ To obtain one of these acceptable solutions, we must
assign integral values called quantum numbers to three
quantities in the wave equation.
❑ This requirement is similar to the requirement for an
integral value of n in the Bohr equation for the H atom.
❑ In this model, the electrons are associated with definite
energy levels, but their locations cannot be pinpointed.
❑ Instead, they are described in terms of the probability of
being found in certain regions of space about the nucleus.
✓ These regions of space are called orbitals.
✓ An orbital is a particularly shaped volume of space where
the probability of finding an electron is at a maximum.
✓ Introduces the concept of sublevel/subshell (s, p, d, and f )
 1.The Heisenberg's Principle
❑ States that it is impossible to know simultaneously both the
momentum and the position of a particle with certainty.
Mathematically, the Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is given
as
✓where ∆x and ∆p are the uncertainties in measuring the position
and momentum, respectively.
➢ If we measure the momentum of a particle precisely (i.e. if ∆p is
made very small), then the position will be correspondingly less
precise (i. e, ∆x will become larger).
➢ Similarly, if the position of a particle is known more precisely,
then its momentum will be less precise.
 2.Quantum Numbers
Principal quantum n=1, 2, 3, etc
number (n) ✓ Tells relative size/ energy
Azimuthal quantum l =0 to n –1
number (l ) ✓ This defines the shape of the orbital

l = 0 = s, l = 1 = p, l = 2 = d,
l = 3 = f sub shell
Magnetic quantum ml = -l through 0 to + l
number (ml ) ✓ Determines the orientation of the
orbital.
Spin quantum ✓ Electrons have a spinning motion.
number (ms) ✓ +½ (↑) and -½ (↓).
3.Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

Three p -orbitals

Five d orbitals.
Principles/rules governing electron configuration
❑The aufbau principle :The word aufbau is German
word, meaning building up.

✓ Electrons fill atomic orbitals of the lowest available

energy levels before occupying higher levels.
Principles/rules governing electron configuration
❑Hund’s rule
✓When assigning electrons in orbitals, each electron
will first fill all the orbitals with similar energy (also
referred to as degenerate) before pairing with
another electron in a half-filled orbital. The principle
of maximum multiplicity.
Principles/rules governing electron configuration
❑Pauli’s exclusion principle

✓States that no two electrons can have the same four

quantum numbers. The first three (n, l, and ml) may
be the same, but the fourth quantum number must be
different.
 Electronic configuration
❑Describes the distribution of the electrons among
atomic orbitals in the atom.

WHY?
 History of the periodic Table
Law of Triads – Group of Three
✓ Debereiner’s triads

Law of Octaves – Groups of Eight

✓Newlands classification of elements
 Mendeleev’s periodic classification

❑Mendeleev left blank spaces for the undiscovered

elements and also predicted masses and other
properties of these unknown elements almost
correctly.
❑'eka-aluminium' and 'ekasilicon.' ('eka' means 'first').
What he meant by 'eka-aluminium' is "a currently
known element (galium) following aluminium".
Modern periodic table
 Periodic Properties within a Group/period

❑ Nuclear charge (Z): is the total positive charge in

the nucleus of an atom.
❑ Atomic radius is the distance from the atom’s
nucleus to the outer edge of the electron cloud.
❑Ionic radius is the distance from the nucleus to the outer
edge of the electron cloud of an ion.
❑Ionization energy (IE) is the energy required to remove
the highest-energy electron from a neutral atom.
❑Electronegativity is the measure of the ability of an
atom in a bond to attract electrons to itself.
❑Electron affinity is defined as the energy released in
kilojoules/mole, when an electron is added to an isolated
gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion.
 Exercise
Explain the irregularities in the trends across periods.
1. B, (IE1 =801 kJ mol–1) and Be, (IE1=900 kJ mol–1).
2. IE1 values for nitrogen is higher than oxygen.
3. Why the electron affinity of F is negative value
whereas the electron affinity of Ne is a positive value.
4. Why EA2 is a positive quantity for oxygen atom.
5. Arrange the atoms (ions) in order of increasing size:
✓ Mg2+, O2–, Na+, F–, Al3+
✓ Ne, N3– , F –, Na+, C4–