Chapter-10

Wave Optics
10.1 Introduction
The branch of optics that considers the behavior of light as wave is called wave optics
(sometimes called physical optics) Light is fascinating but complicated. Fascinating because
it exhibits several properties and it is essential for life on the earth. Look at the attractive
colors on the wings of butterfly, rainbow colors on CD, soap bubble and oil layer-water
interface. Complicated because it is not yet fully understood (even today!) and these
properties offer countless opportunities to scientists to propose different theories.

Many scientists have tried to answer the question “what is light”? They have
proposed several theoretical models in order to explain the behavior of light. Some of
them are here
Newton introduced Corpuscular theory in 1670. According to him light is a stream of tiny
particles called corpuscles. Light travels faster in denser medium than in rarer medium. This
theory had failed to explain many properties of light, but still it was not rejected for nearly
100 years- may be because of Newton’s name and fame!!
Huygens gave wave theory of light in 1678. It explained most of the properties of light.
According to this theory light is a form of energy and travel as wave (much similar to sound).
The wavelength of light wave is very small (about 0.4-0.6m) Because of the smallness of the
wavelength light can be assumed to approximately travel in straight lines.
According to wave theory light requires medium for the propagation. But actually
light travels in vacuum also. This was clarified by Maxwell who introduced
Electromagnetic (EM) theory in 1864.
According to him when electric and magnetic field vary perpendicular to each other EM
wave is produced and visible light is a part of EM wave. EM waves travel even in vacuum
also. Its speed in vacuum is given by

10.2. Huygens principle

Huygens proposed the wave theory of light in 1678. It is based on geometrical construction
of wave front and wavelets.

Wave fronts
Light is a form of energy. Energy emitted by the source propagates in all the directions by
creating disturbance in the medium. Particles present at each and every point in the medium
vibrate periodically. The locus of all the points vibrating in phase is known as wave front.
Wave fronts are exactly similar to ripples produced on the calm surface of water when a
stone is dropped. Speed with which the wave fronts move away from the source is known as
wave velocity. The energy propagates in a perpendicular direction to the wave front.
The shape of the wave front depends on the nature of the source. Wave fronts are spherical
for point source and cylindrical for linear source. At a larger distance from the source they
are plane.
Wavelets
A wavelet is a point of disturbance due to propagation of light.
Now comes the important statement called Huygens principle.
It states that Every point on a wave front acts as a source of light and emits secondary wave
fronts or wavelets. These wavelets spread out in the forward direction at the same speed as
the wave itself. The tangent of all the wavelets gives the next immediate wave front.

Let 𝐶1𝐶2 be the wave front. Each wavelet on it travels with speed c and covers a distance of
ct in t second. The tangent drawn to all of them after t second will generate next wave front
(Say, 𝐹1𝐹2). The new wave front is now ct away from its previous one. Wave fronts are plane
at larger distances but the wavelets are still spherical. The new wave front is again plane as
shown in fig
NOTE:
● Line perpendicular to the wave front is known as ray.
● We can show that the amplitude of the wavelet is ½ (1+cos). For backward wave
front = 180 and hence amplitude is zero. Hence we normally do not consider
backward wavefront.
The major differences between wavefront and wavelets are
1. Wave fronts are emerging from the real source whereas wavelets are emerging
from the imaginary source.
2. Wave fronts are spherical in shape at finite distance and plane at infinite
distances. Wavelets are always spherical.
3. Each point on the wave front represents the vibration of the particle but points on
the wavelets do not represent the same. Wavelet is actually a small wave-like
oscillation having a small duration. (Its amplitude increases and decreases
quickly).
4. Wave fronts from the same source do not interfere but wavelets from the same
source interfere.
10.3 Refraction and reflection using Huygens principle
10.3.1 Refraction at denser medium
The law of refraction can be explained by applying Huygens’s principle to a wave
front passing from one medium to another
Consider a ray of light falling on the surface separating air (rarer) and glass (denser)
with incident angle i and refracting angle r. It travels with speed of 𝑣1 in air and 𝑣2in
glass such that 𝑣1 > 𝑣2. Plane wave fronts falling on the surface are as shown in fig.
Each point on the wave front acts as a secondary source. Let P and O are the secondary
sources emitting wavelets 𝑤1 and 𝑤2. Since the speed of light is smaller in the denser
medium 𝑤2 travels smaller distance than 𝑤1. The locus of these wavelets generates the
next wave front (ie after t second). Obviously it is bent towards the normal.
Hence,

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑣1𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
= 𝑣2𝑡

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑣1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
= 𝑣2
—(1)
The refractive index (RI) of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light in
vacuum and speed of light in the medium. It is given by
𝑐
𝑛 = 𝑣
𝑐 𝑐
For air, 𝑛1 = 𝑣1
⇒ 𝑣1 = 𝑛1

Therefore Eq (1) becomes

This is nothing but the law of refraction (also known as Snell’s law).
Also, we can show that the ratio of wavelength of the wave in air (λ1) and that in glass
(λ2) as

ie, the wavelength in a medium is directly proportional to velocity of the wave. As

velocity decreases, wavelength also decreases so that the frequency remains the same.

10.3.2 Refraction at rarer medium

The wave velocity increases if light travels from denser medium to rarer medium. As
a result the wavelet 𝑤2 at O travels larger distance and 𝑤1 (at h) travels smaller
distance. The locus of these wavelets generates the next wave front. It is bent away
from the normal. Hence the angle of refraction (r) increases.

Even here also Snell’s law is valid, ie

But the only difference is that 𝑛1 is the RI of glass and 𝑛2 is that of air. If 𝑖 =𝑖𝑐
(called critical angle) then r = 90. If the incident angle exceeds ic then the ray
undergoes total internal reflection.
10.3.3 Reflection at plane surface
When plane wavefronts incident on the reflecting surface (like a mirror) they reflect.
The reflected wave fronts are moving away from the surface as shown in Fig (A).
According to law of reflection the angle of incidence (i) is equal to angle of reflection
(r). It can be proved as follows.

In fig (B) we have taken only one plane wave front AB falling at A on the reflecting
surface XY and for the sake of clarity the reflection of this wave front is shown at C as
CD (Caution!...do not think that the wave front is falling at one point and reflecting at
other point)

The wavelet starting at A and C travel the same distance in t second. Hence AD = CB.
Another/Alternate approach
Consider a ray of light reflecting from the surface of a plane mirror. Let AC be the
incident wave front with O as the secondary source. The wavelet emitted from O (not
shown in fig) travels distance OB in t second ( = vt). Let DF be the reflected wave
front with E as the secondary source. The wavelet emitted from E (not shown in fig)
travels distance EB in t second ( = vt).

So, OB = EB
Further,
∠COB = ∠BED = 90
Therefore △COB and △BED are congruent triangles.
Hence we can write
∠OCB = ∠EDB
Therefore, i=r
This is nothing but the law of reflection.

Behaviour of prisms, lenses, and mirrors

Consider a plane wave passing through a thin prism. Clearly, since the speed of light
waves are less in glass, the lower portion of the incoming wave front will get delayed.
As a result the emerging wave front is tilted as shown in the figure.
Consider a plane wave incident on a thin convex lens; the central part of the incident
the plane wave crosses the thickest portion of the lens and is delayed the most. The
emerging wave front has a depression at the center and therefore it becomes spherical
and converges to the point F. Consider a plane wave incident on a concave mirror and
on reflection we have a spherical wave converging to the focal point F.
10.4 Interference of light
The phenomena of superposition of two or more coherent waves and hence the
modification of intensity is known as interference.
Some of the terminologies associated with interference of light are discussed below
i. Principle of superposition
Interference is based on the superposition principle according to which at a particular
point in the medium, the resultant displacement produced by a number of waves is the
vector sum of the displacements produced by each of the waves.
If 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 are the displacements of two individual waves of amplitude a & b having
some phase difference (ϕ) then according to principle of superposition the resultant
displacement is
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
Let 𝑦1 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡
And 𝑦2 =𝑏 sin(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) then
y = 𝑎 sin𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏 sin(𝜔𝑡+𝜙)
y = a sin𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏 sin𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 + 𝑏 sin 𝜙 cos𝜔𝑡
y = sin𝜔𝑡(𝑎 + 𝑏 cos 𝜙) + cos𝜔𝑡 𝑏 sin 𝜙
Put (𝑎 + 𝑏 cos𝜙) = 𝑅 cos 𝜃------------(1)
and 𝑏 sin𝜙 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃-------------(2)
y = sin𝜔𝑡 𝑅 cos 𝜃 +cos𝜔𝑡𝑅sin𝜃
y =𝑅 (sin𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜃 + cos𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜃)
y =𝑹 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽)
This is the equation for the resultant wave whose amplitude is R. It is obtained by
squaring and adding Eq (1) and Eq (2). It is of the form

The resultant intensity is

Based on the phase difference value 𝜙 , I may be maximum or minimum. Accordingly

there will be either constructive interference or destructive interference.
ii. Phase difference and Path difference
When two waves of same wavelength start from the same point and travel in the same
medium then at each and every point their crests and troughs are matching. Now they
are said to be in phase. If, for some reason, one of the wave is delayed (may be
because of the change in medium or RI) then crests and troughs are no more matching.
Now they are said to be having some phase difference. If crest of one wave is falling
on the trough of the other wave then the waves are said to be out of phase.
Phase of a wave represents the state of vibration at any instant of time and hence it is
expressed in terms of fraction of time period (T) as well as in terms of radians or
degrees (ie, π).
The fraction of time period elapsed since the particle has passed through its
equilibrium position is known as phase and the difference between any two points or
between any two waves is known as phase difference (∆ϕ). If the phase difference is
expressed in terms of wavelength (λ) then it is called path difference (∆𝑥)
The relation between phase difference and path difference is

For ex,
a. In fig-A particles at 2,4,6 (green arrow) are vibrating upward whereas particles at
1,3,5 are downward. Hence 2,4 & 6 are in phase and 1,3 & 5 are in phase.
b. In Fig-B two waves are starting with a trough at the same point and travelling with
the same velocity. Hence they are in phase.
c. In Fig-C the 2nd wave is starting with 1/4th of the trough a little earlier. Hence there
is a phase difference of T/4 or π/2.
d. In Fig-D the 2nd wave has one full wave extra compared to the 1st one. Hence the
phase difference is T or 2π.
e. In Fig-E the 2nd wave is having one trough in advance. Hence the phase difference
is T/2 or π.
iii. Coherent waves and Coherent sources
If two or more waves of same wavelength travel with constant phase difference then
they are called as coherent waves and the source emitting such type of waves is known
as coherent source.
Two individual sources cannot produce coherent waves. We can produce them only by
some alternate methods. Two such methods are (i) amplitude division method (ii) wave
front division method.
iv. Conditions for interference
The following conditions must be satisfied for interference of light.
a. The interfering waves must be coherent.
b. They should travel either in the same direction or travel towards a common point.
c. The distance between coherent sources must be very small compared to distance
between the source and screen.
d. The amplitude of interfering waves is either the same or nearly the same e. Phase
difference is 2nπ for constructive interference and (2n±1) for destructive interference.
Intensity due to constructive and destructive interference
When the phase difference is 2nπ crest of one wave falls on the crest of the other wave
(ie, crest-crest and trough-trough matches). This is constructive interference. The
amplitude is added and intensity becomes maximum. According to Eq (4)

If both the waves have same amplitude, say a and the phase difference is 0, 2π, 4π,
….2nπ then

Here 𝐼0 is the intensity of individual wave.

When the phase difference is (2n±1) crest of one wave falls on the trough of the other
wave (ie, crest trough and trough-crest matches). This is destructive interference. The
amplitude is cancelled and intensity becomes minimum. According to Eq (4)
2 2 2
I =𝑅 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏 cos𝜙
If both the waves have same amplitude, say a and the phase difference is π, 3π, 5π,
….(2n±1)π then
2 2
I = 𝑎 + 𝑎 − 2𝑎𝑎 =0
I=0
Interference and law of conservation of energy
Actually the net intensity of the two interfering waves is 2𝐼0. But net intensity
becoming 4𝐼0 and 0 creates an impression that energy is created during constructive
interference and destroyed during destructive interference. This will certainly rise a
question! Does the interference violate the law of conservation of energy? No! in
interference even though the intensity is 4𝐼0 during constructive and 0 during
destructive, the time average of intensity is always 2𝐼0. Hence energy is neither
created nor destroyed. Interference obeys the law of conservation of energy.

10.5 Young’s double slit experiment (YDSE)

In 1801, Thomas Young experimentally proved the wave nature of light through his
famous double slit experiment. The experimental set up consists of a monochromatic
source S and three screens namely A, B and C. One narrow slit 𝑆0 is made in A and
two narrow slits 𝑆1 & 𝑆2 in B. 𝑆1 & 𝑆2 act as source of light. The distance between 𝑆1
& 𝑆2 is very small compared to the distance between screen B and C. The light from
the
source is made to pass through 𝑆0 where it undergoes diffraction. The wave fronts
coming from 𝑆0S0 fall on 𝑆1 & 𝑆2. Circular wave fronts emerging from 𝑆1 & 𝑆2
interfere as shown in fig A. The alternate bright (maxima) and dark (minima) fringe
pattern (called interference pattern) is formed on screen C. Bright corresponds to
constructive interference and dark corresponds to destructive interference. When crest
from 𝑆1 falls on crest from 𝑆2 (solid curve) or trough falls on trough (dotted curve)
constructive interference takes place and a bright fringe is formed. When crest from S1
falls on trough from S2 destructive interference takes place and dark fringe is formed.
The schematic sketch of YDSE is as shown in fig-B. Here d is the distance between
two slits and D is the distance between slits and the screen. Let two waves meeting at
P have a path difference of 𝑆2Q. It is calculated as follows
Angular position of fringes
From Eq (2) and Eq (3) we can write the angular positions of bright and dark fringes
w.r.t centre For bright

And so on,

For dark

For 1st dark, 𝑚=0 ∴θ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛^−1 (0.5𝜆 / 𝑑 )

For 2nd dark , 𝑚=1 ∴θ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛^−1 (1.5𝜆 / 𝑑 )
For 3rd dark , 𝑚=2 ∴θ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛^−1 (2.5𝜆 / 𝑑 )
And so on,

Linear position of fringes

The linear distance between m^th bright fringe from the centre is given by

The linear distance between m^th dark fringe from the centre is given by

Interference fringes are equidistant. All bright fringes are equally bright having
intensity 4𝐼0 and all dark fringes are equally dark with ZERO intensity. The intensity
distribution curve is as follows
10.6 Diffraction
If you carefully observe the shadow caused by an opaque object alternate bright and
a dark fringe pattern is observed. Hence the edges of the shadow are not sharp. This is
mainly due to diffraction of light.
The phenomena of bending of light waves across a sharp opaque object and hence the
encroachment of the shadow region is known as diffraction.
The main condition for diffraction of light is that the dimensions of the opaque object
must be comparable with the wavelength of light. Since wavelength of visible light is
of the order of m we need very thin or sharp objects.
Ex, light falling on scratches on the glass, tracks on CD, narrow slit, edges of the
shaving blade, tip of the needle etc undergo diffraction. (Hence we see multi colors on
CD).
NOTE:
1. Sound waves are big in size and they bend across the walls also. Hence diffraction is
easily observable in the case of sound.
2. Radio waves are large and they can bend across the buildings, hills etc. hence they
are used for communication purposes.
10.6.1 Diffraction at single slit
Consider a narrow slit S of width a in a cardboard illuminated by a monochromatic
source. After the diffraction the light emerges from the slit and proceeds towards the
screen C. Intensity distribution pattern on the screen is as shown in Fig-A.
Rays proceeding towards travel equal length and path difference is zero. Hence
intensity is maximum at O and it is called central maxima. Rays proceeding towards
P will have some path difference. They interfere and produce the fringe pattern. In fact
on both sides, there are alternate dark and bright regions and they are called secondary
minima and maxima (Fig-B). The intensity decreases away from the center maxima.
We can show that
The condition for secondary maxima is

The condition for secondary minima is

The intensity distribution curve is as shown in Fig-C

10.7 Polarisation
Fig-B Fig-C Light is an electromagnetic wave. It consists of electric field and magnetic
field vibrations (or vectors) mutually perpendicular to each other. If a beam of light
consists of an electric vector in all possible directions then it is called un polarized
light. If the electric vibrations are restricted to one particular direction (or to one
particular plane) then it is called polarized light. Un polarized and polarized light are
as shown below.
When unpolarized light is passed through some materials all the vibrations are
blocked except one particular vibration and the emerging light is said to be polarised.
The material used to polarise the light is known as polariser or Polaroid. It is made up
of some special type of materials.
Polaroid materials act as a polarising slit for light, allowing only polarisation in one
direction to pass through. They are composed of long molecules aligned in one
direction. The axis of a polaroid along which the electric field is passed is known as
pass axis or polarisation direction. Pass axis also defined as the direction along which
the molecules in a polaroid are aligned [Thinking of the molecules as many slits,
analogous to those for the oscillating ropes, we can understand why only light with a
specific polarisation can get through].

When the polarised light emerging from polaroid is allowed to pass through another
polaroid the intensity of the final emergent beam varies. Let 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are two
polaroids whose pass axis are oriented at an angle . If 𝐼0 is the intensity of light
emerging from 𝑃1 and I is the intensity of light emerging from 𝑃2 then
2
𝐼 = 𝐼0𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
This is also known as cosine square law or Mauls law. This law is applicable
only if the incident light is already polarised If 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are perpendicular
to each other then I = 0. This is known as crossed position.

Polaroids can be used to control the intensity, in sunglasses, window panes, etc.
Polaroids are also used in photographic cameras and 3D movie cameras.
NOTE:
1. There are several methods to polarise the light. They are polarisation by reflection,
refraction and double refraction The intensity of the light decreases after the
polarisation.
2. The plane containing polarised vibration is known as the plane of polarisation. The
plane of polarisation is very important in signal transmission (such as TV signals,
radio signals etc).