Quincy Sy January 5 2025

Unit 4: Waves and Sound

SECTION I: Vibrations and Waves
Vibration – A type of motion where an object undergoes a repeated pattern in a consistent time interval.

Waves – Chains of vibrations due to one part vibrating, causing the next part to vibrate, and so on. Energy
moves throughout the waves but the individual wave vibrates and returns to the exact same spot.

Simple Harmonic Motion - A motion that repeats itself at regular intervals.

• This is caused by a force that always points back to equilibrium (𝑑𝑑 = 0 and 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 0).
• When 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 ≠ 0, the object is not at equilibrium.
• The force gets stronger the further the object is from equilibrium (𝑑𝑑 = 0).
• This force is known as the restoring force.

Types of Waves:

A wave where the particles vibrate

perpendicular to the direction of the flow of
Transverse Waves energy.

A wave where the particles vibrate parallel

Longitudinal Waves to the direction of the flow of energy.

Properties of Waves:

Property Description Measured In Equation(s)

The number of complete cycles Hertz (Hz) 1
Frequency (f) per unit time. 1 𝑓𝑓 =
Cycle per second (𝑠𝑠 ) 𝑇𝑇
Time-Based

The time for a vibration to 1

Period (T) Seconds (s) 𝑇𝑇 =
complete one cycle. 𝑓𝑓
Both Wave Types

The rate at which a wave travels

𝑚𝑚 ∆𝑑𝑑 𝜆𝜆
Wave Speed (v) through a medium or how fast Meters per second ( ) 𝑣𝑣 = = = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑡𝑡 𝑇𝑇
energy in a wave is moving.
The distance between two 𝑣𝑣
Wavelength (𝜆𝜆) similar points in adjacent cycles Meters (m) 𝜆𝜆 =
𝑓𝑓
in a wave.
The maximum displacement of
Amplitude a wave from its equilibrium Meters (m)
point.
The maximum point of a
Geometric

Transverse

Crest traverse wave.

The minimum point of a

Trough traverse wave
Regions in the wave where
Longitudinal

Rarefactions vibrations are farther apart.

Regions in the wave where

Compressions vibrations are closer together.
Resonant Frequency – The preferred or “natural” frequency that vibrating objects possess.

Universal Wave Equation – The mathematical relationship between wave speed, frequency, and wavelength.

𝑣𝑣 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
Wave Speed Factors:

Factor Description Measured In Equation

The thickness of a string, or mass per unit Kilograms per 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Linear Density (𝝁𝝁) distance. It determines how much force it 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝜇𝜇 =
meter ( ) 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ
will take to make a string vibrate. 𝑚𝑚
Tension (𝑭𝑭𝑻𝑻 ) The pulling/stretching force across a string. Newtons (N)
Cooler gases transmit waves ineffectively
due to their molecules not possessing
much kinetic energy, therefore not able to
Temperature
transfer energy well. Hotter gases transmit
(GASES ONLY)
waves more effectively as the molecules
are moving faster, thus transferring energy
easily.

In a string, the only factors that affect wave speed are tension and linear density. The equation for speed of a
wave with these variables is:

𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇
𝑣𝑣 = �
𝜇𝜇

Tension (𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 ) is proportional

As 𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 increases, 𝑣𝑣 increases. As 𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 decreases, 𝑣𝑣 decreases.
to speed
Linear density (𝜇𝜇) is inversely
As 𝜇𝜇 increases, 𝑣𝑣 decreases. As 𝜇𝜇 decreases, 𝑣𝑣 increases.
proportional to speed

In a string, the frequency/note/pitch is also affected by tension and linear density. When rearranging the
universal wave equation:
𝑣𝑣
𝑓𝑓 =
𝜆𝜆
Tension (𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 ) is proportional
𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 ↑, 𝑣𝑣 ↑, 𝑓𝑓 ↑ 𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 ↓, 𝑣𝑣 ↓, 𝑓𝑓 ↓
to frequency
Linear density (𝜇𝜇) is inversely
𝜇𝜇 ↑, 𝑣𝑣 ↓, 𝑓𝑓 ↓ 𝜇𝜇 ↓, 𝑣𝑣 ↑, 𝑓𝑓 ↑
proportional to frequency
Wavelength (𝜆𝜆) is inversely
𝜆𝜆 ↑, 𝑓𝑓 ↓ 𝜆𝜆 ↓, 𝑓𝑓 ↑
proportional to frequency

Sounds Waves – Longitudinal waves made of vibrating particles in the air, creating a pattern of high pressure
(compressions) and low pressure (rarefactions).
• Audible Sound Waves – Sound waves within the range of human hearing, 20 Hz – 20 kHz.
• Infrasonic Waves – Sound waves below the range of human hearing, < 20 Hz.
• Ultrasonic Waves - Sound waves above the range of human hearing, > 20 kHz.
 Speed of Sound

The speed of sound waves follows the universal wave equation but can also be influenced by two other factors.

Factor Description Equation

Denser materials have particles closer
together, meaning sound can travel faster.
Material Density
Therefore, sound travels fastest in solids,
then liquids, and slowest in gases.
As temperature increases, particles have In air on Earth, (T is temperature):
Temperature 𝑚𝑚
more kinetic energy, allowing them to
(GASES ONLY) 𝑣𝑣 = 331 + 0.606 𝑇𝑇
transmit energy sooner. 𝑠𝑠

Intensity of Sound

Sound Intensity – The amount of power a sound wave delivers as it passes a cross-sectional area of space.

The intensity/loudness of a sound is determined by how large the difference in pressure is in the sound wave
𝑊𝑊
(also known as the amplitude). It’s unit is watts per meter squared ( ) and can be calculated by:
𝑚𝑚2

𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼 =
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
𝐼𝐼 – Sound Intensity 𝑃𝑃 – Source Power (W) 𝑟𝑟 – Distance from Source (m)

The Bel system is the measure of sound loudness (perception of sound by the average person) relative to the
𝑊𝑊
lowest intensity a human can hear (𝐼𝐼 = 1.0 × 10−12 ). The deciBel system is more commonly used and is a
𝑚𝑚2
tenth of a Bel.

Bel Value DeciBel Value Sound Intensity

𝑊𝑊
𝐵𝐵 = 0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 1 × 10−12 2
𝑚𝑚
𝑊𝑊
𝐵𝐵 = 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 10 1 × 10−11 2
𝑚𝑚
−10
𝑊𝑊
𝐵𝐵 = 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 20 1 × 10
𝑚𝑚2
… … …
𝑊𝑊
𝐵𝐵 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 10 10𝑥𝑥 × 10−12 2
𝑚𝑚
Bel uses a logarithmic scale, meaning that for every increment, the sound is 10 times louder:

𝐼𝐼 = 10𝐵𝐵 × 𝐼𝐼0

𝐼𝐼 – Sound Intensity 𝐼𝐼0 – Base Intensity 𝐵𝐵 – Bel Value of Sound

Through the common logarithm, we can determine the Bel of a sound with a given intensity:
𝐼𝐼
𝐵𝐵 = log � �
𝐼𝐼0
Pitch of Sound

Sound Pitch – The frequency of a sound wave.

• Higher frequencies  Higher pitches
• Lower frequencies  Lower pitches
 Quality of Sound

Sound Quality – The shape of a wave produced by an object.

• Two objects (e.g. instruments) can produce identical sounds (same intensity and pitch) but their waves
have different shapes, allowing differentiation between the instruments.

Mach Speed and Sonic Booms

Mach Speed – The speed of an object relative to the speed of sound in the environment’s air.
• e.g. Mach 1 means travelling at the speed of sound, Mach 2 means travelling twice at the speed of
sound.

Mach speed can be determined by the equation:

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀ℎ =
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
As an object accelerates up to the speed of sound, it begins to catch up with the sound waves they are
producing. When the sound barrier is crossed (travelling faster than speed of sound), the waves are broken
through, creating a shock wave, known as a sonic boom.

SECTION II: Wave Interactions

Principle of Superposition – When two waves overlap/interfere with each other, the amplitude of the resulting
wave is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves.

There are two types of interference:

The process of forming a wave with a larger amplitude
(louder sound) when two or more waves combine.
Constructive Interference

The process of forming a wave with a smaller amplitude

Destructive Interference (softer sound) when two or more waves combine.

When a wave travels through a medium (a material that moves energy from one location/substance to
another), it will encounter a boundary or change in medium, known as a media boundary.
• e.g. A wave travelling in the air hits a wall. This is a change in medium and the location where the air
meets the wall is the media boundary.

There are two ways a wave can react when it reaches a boundary.

Reflection – Change in direction of a wave at a wave boundary.

If the boundary cannot vibrate, the reflection
is inverted.
Fixed End Reflection
 If the boundary can vibrate, the reflection will
be the same.
Free End Reflection

Transmission – Crossing a boundary with different density, affecting the wave’s speed.
A reflected pulse and transmitted pulse will
be created. The reflected pulse will be
Less Dense  More Dense
inverted.

A reflected pulse and transmitted pulse will

be created. The reflected pulse will not be
More Dense  Less Dense inverted.

Standing Wave – A stationary (“standing still”) wave pattern produced when an incoming and reflected wave
interfere with each other. Only occurs with reflections at media boundaries.

The incoming and reflected waves will alternate between constructive interference and destructive
interference, creating antinodes (amplitudes of troughs and crests add up) and nodes (amplitudes of troughs
and crests cancel each other) respectively.

The stationary effect is caused by two identical waves travelling in opposite direction. The wave speed of the
standing wave interference pattern is the difference of the incoming and reflected wave speeds and since they
are identical, the standing wave speed is zero.

There are two scenarios where a standing wave can occur:

Two Fixed Ends (Strings)

When there are 2 fixed ends, a standing transverse wave can fit along the medium in intervals of half a
wavelength. Depending on the frequency of the incoming/reflected waves, different standing waves can be
produced. There will always be an initial 2 nodes at both ends.

Harmonics – The # of half wavelengths, and therefore frequencies that will resonate on the string.

Overtone – A sound resulting from a string that vibrates with more than one frequency.

Symbol # Nodes between Ends Diagram Harmonic (n) Overtone

𝑓𝑓0 0 first fundamental

𝑓𝑓1 1 second first

𝑓𝑓2 2 third second

𝑓𝑓3 3 fourth third

… … … … …
𝑥𝑥+1
𝑓𝑓𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1, 𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 = 𝜆𝜆 (𝑥𝑥 + 1)th 𝑥𝑥 th
2
Notice when the length of the string forms a certain number of half wavelengths, it creates different harmonics.
• e.g. If a 10 meter string forms half a wavelength, then the total wavelength of the first harmonic is 20
meters.
• e.g. If we want to create a third harmonic standing wave with a 5 meter string, we would need to form
10
wavelengths of meters.
3

From the chart, an equation can be generated to determine the wavelength needed to create a 𝑛𝑛th harmonic for
a string with wavelength L:
2(𝐿𝐿)
𝜆𝜆𝑛𝑛 =
𝑛𝑛
With the wavelength determined by the equation, you can then substitute the value to determine the frequency
needed using the universal wave equation.

Free Ends or Fixed-Free Ends (Air Columns)

It is also possible to create standing longitudinal sound waves inside an air column but these changes
depending on whether the endings are fixed or free.

Free Ends – Similar to two fixed ends, the wave can fit in intervals of half a wavelength.

Fixed-Free Ends – The wave can also fit in intervals of half a wavelength, but the first overtone is a quarter
wavelength.

To determine the wavelength needed to create a 𝑛𝑛th overtone for a string with wavelength L:
4(𝐿𝐿)
𝜆𝜆 =
2𝑛𝑛 − 1

Beat – Periodic change in sound intensity caused by the interference between two nearly identical sound
waves.

Since the two sound waves are not identical, some parts of the waves perform constructive interference while
other parts perform destructive interference, creating a change in loudness to the listener. One cycle of the
constructive and destructive interference is a beat and the frequency the beats occur is called the beat
frequency.
To determine the beat frequency:
𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = |𝑓𝑓1 − 𝑓𝑓2 |

Damping – A reduction in the amplitude of a wave due to energy absorption or destructive interference.

Resonant Frequency – The frequency at which a medium vibrates most easily.

Resonance – The condition in which the frequency of a wave equals the resonant frequency of the wave’s
medium.

Doppler Effect – When a source of sound is moving and approaching an observer, the observed frequency of
the sound increases. When the source moves away from the observer, the observed frequency decreases.

This is due to when a sound source is moving closer to an observer, the sound waves become compressed,
making the frequency of the sound higher. When the sound source is moving away, the sound waves become
stretched, making the frequency of the waves lower, thus a lower frequency sound.

To calculate the frequency head by an observer, we use the formula:

𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ± 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � �
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∓ 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 – frequency heard by observer 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 – actual frequency emitted by the source
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 – speed of sound in the air 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 – speed of observer
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 – speed of source travelling

Negative means observer is walking toward the source.

±
Positive means observer is walking away from the source
Negative means source is going toward the observer
∓
Positive means source is going away from the observer
 SECTION III: Applications of Waves
The ear has two functions:

Hearing – The ability to detect vibrations in the air and interpret them as sounds.
- A tube in the ear with hairs arranged from longest
to shortest is called the cochlea.
- Lower pitched sounds resonate with longer hairs.
- Higher pitched sounds resonate with shorter
hairs.
- The louder the sound, the greater amplitude the
hairs vibrate.
- As they vibrate, they send signals to the brain
which are then interpreted as sound.
Equilibrium – The ability to maintain balance.
- The semicircular canals contain special fluids.
- The fluids move around depending on the
orientation of the body and how the body is
moving.
- Movement of the fluids are detected by special
hairs which send signals to the brain.

The frequency of the sound wave determines the pitch/musical note played by an instrument.

Consonance – The frequencies of pitches/sounds that fit together to create harmony.

Dissonance – The frequencies of pitches/sounds that do not fit together to create harmony.

Scales – An arrangement of musical notes from lowest to highest in sets that tend to sound harmonious. There
are two common musical scale setups.

Just Scale – Based on Harmonics and Overtones

- There are 8 notes (full octave) in a Just Scale.
- The first note in the scale is called the fundamental. It
corresponds to the first
harmonic.
- The last note in the scale is the second harmonic and has exactly
double the frequency.
- The fifth note in the scale has 3/2 times the frequency
corresponding to the difference
between the 2nd and 3rd harmonic.
- The fourth note in the scale has 4/3 times the frequency
corresponding to the
difference between the 3rd and 4th harmonic.
- The third note in the scale has 5/4 time the frequency
corresponding to the difference
between the 4th and 5th harmonic.
Equal Temperament Scale – Based on the Just Scale but adjusted for Math consistency
- The equal temperament scale is based on the Just scale by
adjusted to be more consistent using math.
- On a keyboard there are 12 keys between octaves.
- Notes that are a full octave apart still have twice the frequency.
Meanwhile the notes in the sequence have 2N/12 higher frequency,
where N indicates how many keys apart the notes are.

Ratio to Fundamental Equal

# Keys Apart Interval Ratio to Fundamental Just Scale
Temperament
0 Unison 1.00000 20/12 = 1.0000
1 Minor Second 25/24 = 1.0417 21/12 = 1.05946
2 Major Second 9/8 = 1.1250 22/12 = 1.12246
3 Minor Third 6/5 = 1.2000 23/12 = 1.18921
4 Major Third 5/4 = 1.2500 24/12 = 1.25992
5 Fourth 4/3 = 1.3333 25/12 = 1.33483
6 Diminished Fifth 45/32 = 1.4063 26/12 = 1.41421
7 Fifth 3/2 = 1.5000 27/12 = 1.49831
8 Minor Sixth 8/5 = 1.6000 28/12 = 1.58740
9 Major Sixth 5/3 = 1.6667 29/12 = 1.68179
10 Minor Seventh 9/5 = 1.8000 210/12 = 1.78180
11 Major Seventh 15/8 = 1.8750 211/12 = 1.88775
12 Octave 2.0000 212/12 = 2.0000