1.

URBAN SOCIOLOGY TO UNDERSTAND THE

CITY
1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS
 CITIES ARCHITECTURE
SOCIOLOGY

DEMOGRAPHY
Cities are focal arenas for the contemplation of the human GEOGRAPHY
condition and man’s struggle for self-expression. Cities are THE CITY
landscapes of cultural diversity and subcultural differentiation (OBJECT OF
STUDY)
The city contains our workplaces, our residences, and our ECONOMICS
commercial marketplaces. The metropolis is a terrain of social ECOLOGY
inequality, from the decline to the affluence of prime spaces.

The city is fundamentally a place of exchange LAW

POLITICS

ADMINISTRATION
HOW DO WE DEFINE
A CITY?
01 Population Size

How many inhabitants

must a settlement
have to be considered
a city?
02 Population
Density
In the city, the population is
grouped with a higher
density than in a town or
village.

03 Morphology

Morphology is the
physical appearance or
image of the city. A city,
unlike rural areas, is
characterized by a
compact union of its
buildings and by a larger
size of these buildings.
04 Diversification
of Labor
In the city, all kinds of non-
agricultural activities take
place: industrial activities
arise and develop in cities,
and here also emerges the
tertiary sector, that is, 05 Cultural
services of all kinds.
Development
Cities are centers of cultural
development and innovation,
where new cultural trends
and practices emerge, and
their inhabitants are typically
06 Infrastructure the first to adopt these
changes.
and Services
Cities usually have
advanced infrastructure
and public services,
including transportation
systems, healthcare,
education, and
communication networks.
07 Political
Organization
A city is typically governed
by specific administrative
and political structures, with
a local government that 08 Social Groups
manages urban planning,
policies, and services. and Personal
Contacts
In the countryside, personal
contacts are few but very
intense, meaning that people
know a few individuals, but in a
deep and complete way. In the
09 Heterogeneity city, personal contacts are
numerous but superficial,
and Mobility of the meaning that people know
Population many individuals, but only in a
limited way.
In cities, the population is
highly heterogeneous,
meaning it is made up of
diverse groups in terms of
culture, ethnicity, social
class, and lifestyle.
01 Population Size 06 Infrastructure
and Services

02 Population 07 Political
Density Organization

03 Morphology 08 Social Groups

and Personal
Contacts
04 Diversification
of Labor
09 Heterogeneity
and Mobility of the
05 Cultural
Population
Development
SOCIAL
CHALLENGES

Economy: The production of wealth and its distribution.

Population: The dynamics of human movement, growth, and
composition
Territory: The spatial organization of a city, including how
neighborhoods, districts, and spaces are used, controlled,
and divided.
Politics: the systems of governance, policy-making, and
power relations that shape the urban environment.
Culture: The ways in which culture is created, expressed,
and experienced in cities.
Trust/Urbanity: The social norms, values, and practices that
enable individuals and groups to coexist in urban spaces.
 VOCABULARY
1. Facade: The front or face of a building, often the most decorative or important side.
2. Urban Sprawl: The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into the surrounding countryside.
3. Mixed-use Development: A type of urban development that combines residential,
commercial, and recreational spaces in one area.
4. Pedestrian Walkway: A designated path for people to walk, often separated from traffic.
5. Zoning: Legal regulations that determine how land can be used (e.g., residential, commercial,
industrial).
6. Public Space: An area accessible to everyone, such as parks, plazas, or streets.
7. Gentrification: The process of renovating and improving a neighborhood, often leading to
displacement of lower-income residents.
8. Sustainability: The practice of designing buildings and urban areas in ways that minimize
environmental impact.
9. Skyscraper: A very tall, multi-story building commonly found in urban centers.
10. Green Roof: A roof covered with vegetation to improve insulation and reduce the urban heat
effect.
1) Facade
2) Urban Sprawl
3) Mixed-use Development:
4) Pedestrian Walkway
5) Zoning
6) Public Space
7) Gentrification
8) Sustainability
9) Skyscraper
10) Green Roof
1.2 SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT
 SOCIETY FROM AN URBAN
PERSPECTIVE
Society in an urban context refers to the complex web of human interactions, cultural
norms, social institutions, and power dynamics that emerge in cities. These urban societies
are shaped by the dense networks of relationships that connect people from diverse
backgrounds, experiences, and social classes.
The structure and functioning of urban societies are influenced by factors such as spatial
organization, economic opportunities, governance, and the built environment (buildings,
infrastructure, public spaces, etc.).
Urban society is marked by:
Diversity and Social Stratification
Social Interaction
Economic and Social Inequality
Cultural Production and Consumption
Public and Private Spheres
Urbanization and Social Change
Urban Governance
 DIVERSITY AND
SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION
Cities are melting pots of people from different
racial, ethnic, economic, and cultural
backgrounds. This diversity can lead to both
opportunities for cross-cultural interaction
and tensions due to inequality, segregation,
and differing interests.
Tokyo Subway

Monterrey
SOCIAL INTERACTION

The density of urban areas creates close

proximity between individuals, fostering
frequent social interaction. However, this
proximity can also lead to social alienation,
anonymity, and a sense of detachment despite
being surrounded by many people.
Roosevelt Avenue Chinatown
 ECONOMIC AND
SOCIAL INEQUALITY

Urban environments often exhibit pronounced

economic divides, with stark contrasts
between affluent neighborhoods and
impoverished areas. This disparity can
manifest in access to services, education,
healthcare, housing, and employment.
Av. Lázaro Cárdenas MTY,NL
 CULTURAL
PRODUCTION AND
CONSUMPTION
Cities are hubs for the creation, exchange, and
consumption of culture. The concentration of
institutions like theaters, museums,
restaurants, and markets allows for diverse
cultural expressions but can also create
pressures for conformity in certain social
groups.
 Broadway, NY

Hollywood, CA
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
SPHERES:
Urban society involves a complex negotiation
between public and private spaces. Public
spaces (like parks, plazas, and streets) are
sites for social interaction, but the
privatization of public goods and spaces (such
as shopping malls or gated communities)
raises questions about access and social
exclusion.
 Business on public space

Gated / private communities

 URBANIZATION AND
SOCIAL CHANGE
Urbanization— the process of rural populations
moving into cities— brings significant social
change. As cities grow, they can alter
traditional social structures, lifestyles, and
values. Urbanization is often linked to
industrialization, technological progress, and
shifts in political power.
URBAN GOVERNANCE

Effective governance is crucial in urban

settings to manage growth, ensure social
services, and address issues like pollution,
crime, and housing. Urban governance
typically involves local governments, private
sector participation, and civil society. It
requires collaboration across multiple levels of
government to navigate the complexities of
urban life.
 URBAN SOCIOLOGY

Urban sociology is the study of the social, cultural, economic, and environmental aspects of
cities and urban life. It examines how these factors shape the social structures and relations
within urban areas.
WHAT DOES URBAN SOCIOLOGY STUDY?

Social relations: How people interact with each other in urban areas
Social structures: How social networks, segregation, and neighborhood change are shaped
by space and place
Economic development: How economic forces shape urban environments
Migration: How migration patterns affect urban areas
Demographic trends: How population composition and density affect urban areas
Poverty: How poverty is concentrated in urban areas
Gentrification: How gentrification affects urban areas
Crime: How crime rates are affected by urban areas
 HOW DOES URBAN SOCIOLOGY INFORM
POLICY AND PLANNING?
Urban sociologists use their research to inform policy and planning for urban areas.
Their research can help to improve the quality of life for urban residents.

What methods do urban sociologists use?

Urban sociologists use a variety of methods to study urban areas, including statistical
analysis, observation, interviews, and social theory.
 VOCABULARY
1. Urban Density: The number of people living per unit of area, typically measured in persons
per square kilometer or mile.
2. Transit-Oriented Development (TOD): A type of urban development focused on creating
high-density, mixed-use neighborhoods centered around public transportation hubs.
3. Affordable Housing: Housing that is economically accessible to low- and moderate-
income individuals or families, often supported by government programs or subsidies.
4. Urban Renewal; The process of redeveloping and revitalizing deteriorating urban areas,
often through demolitions, construction of new buildings, and improved infrastructure.
5. Smart City: An urban area that uses digital technology and data to manage and optimize
resources, services, and infrastructure.
1. Urban Density

2. Transit-Oriented
Development (TOD)

3. Affordable
Housing

4. Urban Renewal

5. Smart City
1.3 MAIN SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
 THE CHICAGO SCHOOL OF SOCIOLOGY

The Chicago School of Sociology is a foundational framework in the study of urban

environments. Emerging during the 1920s and 1930s at the University of Chicago, it was one
of the first systematic attempts to analyze the city as a social organism. Here's a deeper dive
into its origins, methodologies, key concepts, and relevance:
 HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The school arose during a time of

rapid industrialization and
urbanization in the United States,
particularly in Chicago, which was
growing as a hub for immigrants
and industry.
Chicago became a living
laboratory for sociological
research, offering a microcosm of
urban issues like poverty,
migration, crime, and segregation.

CHICAGO SCHOOL
Ecology of the City:
The Chicago School viewed cities
as ecosystems where different
groups and institutions compete
for space and resources.
The urban environment was
analyzed in terms of how
populations adapt to and modify
their surroundings.

CHICAGO SCHOOL
Concentric Zone Model (Ernest Burgess):
Proposed that cities grow in rings (or zones) outward from a central business district (CBD).
Each zone has distinct social and economic characteristics:
CBD: Economic and administrative heart of the city.
Zone of Transition: Characterized by poverty, industry, and migrant housing.
Working-Class Zone: Stable housing for industrial workers.
Residential Zone: Middle-class suburbs with improved living conditions.
Commuter Zone: Wealthy outer suburbs or rural areas.

CHICAGO SCHOOL
Human Behavior in Urban Contexts:
The school emphasized understanding how urban settings influence individual
and group behaviors.
Studied phenomena such as deviance, neighborhood formation, and the impact
of urban density on relationships.

CHICAGO SCHOOL
Social Problems as Spatial Issues:
The Chicago School linked urban social problems like crime, juvenile
delinquency, and homelessness to spatial factors such as overcrowding and
poor housing.

CHICAGO SCHOOL
The complexity of urban life requires
adopting a plurality of perspectives
if one wishes to study and interpret
it in all its facets. Thus, geographic,
economic, and ecological studies are
equally legitimate.
One cannot aspire to understand the
city by limiting oneself to the study
of its physical organization.

ROBERT E. PARK
(1864-1944)
CHICAGO SCHOOL
Relevance to Architecture and Urban Design
1. Urban Zoning and Planning:
The Concentric Zone Model influenced early zoning policies, which
segregated urban areas by function (e.g., industrial vs. residential).
2. Urban Renewal:
Lessons from the Chicago School emphasized the dangers of displacing
vulnerable populations in redevelopment projects.
3. Human-Centered Design:
Architects can design spaces that encourage social interaction, reduce
segregation, and promote well-being by understanding urban social
dynamics.

CHICAGO SCHOOL
 THE FRENCH SCHOOL
The French school of urban sociology has made significant contributions to
understanding cities as social, cultural, and economic constructs. This school
integrates critical, philosophical, and political perspectives to explore how urban
spaces are produced, organized, and experienced. It has had a lasting influence
on urban studies and provides a framework for analyzing the dynamics of
modern cities.
 HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The French school emerged during the

20th century, driven by sociologists
and thinkers like Henri Lefebvre,
Manuel Castells, Paul-Henry Chombart
de Lauwe, and Michel de Certeau. It
developed in a context of rapid
urbanization, social inequality, housing
crises, and the reconstruction of
European cities after World War II.

FRENCH SCHOOL
 The Production of Space
Lefebvre is one of the most influential figures in the French school. His seminal work, "The
Production of Space" (1974), argued that space is not a neutral container but is socially
produced through power dynamics and social practices. He also introduced the concept of the
"right to the city," emphasizing that urban spaces should prioritize collective well-being rather
than private economic interests.
Perceived space: How people physically experience and interact with space.
Conceived space: How planners, architects, and governments design and organize space.
Lived space: How individuals and communities reinterpret and reshape spaces through their
everyday practices and experiences.

FRENCH SCHOOL
Social Space
Chombart de Lauwe focused on the relationship between social classes and
urban space, revealing how social hierarchies shape the physical organization
of cities.
In his study of Paris, he demonstrated how daily movements of individuals are
constrained by their economic and social position, highlighting the segregation
of urban life.

FRENCH SCHOOL
Everyday Practices
In "The Practice of Everyday Life" (1980), de Certeau emphasized how individuals
appropriate and transform urban spaces through their daily activities.
He differentiated between planned spaces (designed by architects or governments)
and spaces as lived (reinterpreted by users through walking, informal trade, or other
practices).
De Certeau introduced the concept of the "walker" as someone who reshapes urban
spaces by moving through them, creating a dynamic and lived experience of the city.

FRENCH SCHOOL
Impact on Architecture and Urban Design
1. Participatory Urbanism:
2. Lefebvre's idea of the "right to the city" encourages architects and planners to
involve communities in designing spaces that reflect their needs and aspirations.
3. Flexible Space Design:
4. De Certeau’s focus on everyday practices inspires designs that accommodate
unexpected uses and foster adaptability.
5. Addressing Inequality:
6. The French school’s emphasis on spatial inequalities urges architects to prioritize
inclusive projects, such as affordable housing and equitable access to public
services.

FRENCH SCHOOL
MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY IN URBAN
SOCIOLOGY
Both Marxism and Critical Theory have had profound impacts on urban
sociology, offering frameworks for understanding how cities are shaped by
power, inequality, and economic structures. These approaches emphasize the
role of capitalism in the development of urban spaces and seek to uncover the
social and economic forces that perpetuate inequality and alienation.
Marxist urban sociology is grounded in Karl Marx's theories of capitalism, focusing on
how economic systems shape social relations and spatial organization in cities. Marxist
thinkers analyze how the urban environment is both a product and a tool of capital
accumulation.

MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY

The City as a Site of Capital Accumulation
Cities are central to capitalism because they concentrate labor, markets, and
infrastructure, enabling the production and consumption of goods.
Urban spaces are shaped by the needs of capital, prioritizing profit over the well-
being of inhabitants.

MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY

Uneven Development
Urban development reflects the inequalities of capitalism, where some areas flourish
while others are neglected or exploited.
Wealthy neighborhoods often receive investments in infrastructure and services,
while poorer areas are left behind.

MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY

The Commodification of Space
Land and housing are treated as commodities to be bought and sold, rather
than as essential resources for living.
This leads to processes like gentrification, where working-class residents are
displaced by wealthier newcomers as urban areas are "redeveloped" for profit.

MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY

Urban Struggles and Class Conflict
Cities are arenas for class struggle, as working-class communities fight against
displacement, poor living conditions, and lack of access to resources.
Movements for affordable housing, public services, and anti-gentrification are
examples of urban class conflicts.

MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY

Critical Theory in Urban Sociology
Critical Theory originates from the Frankfurt School (1920s–30s), which combined
Marxist thought with cultural and social analysis. Thinkers like Theodor Adorno, Max
Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, and later Jürgen Habermas sought to uncover the
power dynamics and ideologies that shape society, including urban environments.

MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY

Domination and Power in Urban Life
Critical theorists focus on how power is exercised in urban spaces, often
through hidden mechanisms like ideology, culture, and urban design.
Urban planning and architecture can serve as tools of control, reinforcing social
hierarchies and maintaining the status quo.

Alienation and the Modern City

Cities often alienate individuals by prioritizing efficiency, profit, and
bureaucracy over human needs and relationships.
The emphasis on consumption in urban life reduces individuals to passive
consumers, disconnected from their communities.

MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY

The Role of Ideology
Cities promote ideologies that legitimize inequality, such as the idea that
gentrification or privatization is "progress."
Urban landscapes reflect the dominant cultural values, often marginalizing
alternative or subversive ways of life.

Communicative Action and Public Spaces

Jürgen Habermas highlighted the importance of the public sphere, where
individuals can engage in dialogue and collective decision-making.
Urban spaces like parks, plazas, and community centers are vital for fostering
democratic participation and resisting domination.

MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY

Applications of Marxism and Critical Theory in Urban Design
1. Resistance to Gentrification:
Urban designers can work with communities to prevent displacement and
create inclusive housing policies.
2. Public Space Design:
Incorporating accessible and democratic spaces that promote interaction
and dialogue, inspired by Habermas' idea of the public sphere.
3. Sustainability and Equity:
Addressing the environmental and social costs of urban development by
prioritizing long-term well-being over short-term profits.
4. Participatory Urbanism:
Engaging communities in decision-making processes to ensure urban
projects reflect their needs and aspirations.

MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY

 POSTMODERNISM
Postmodernism is a theoretical movement that emerged in the late 20th century
as a response and critique of modernism and the grand narratives that shaped
traditional urban theories. In urban sociology, postmodernism proposes new
ways of analyzing cities, focusing on fragmentation, cultural diversity, and the
complexity of social and spatial relations in the context of globalization and
advanced capitalism.
Rejection of Grand Narratives
Postmodernism rejects totalizing theories that explain cities as rational
structures or products of capitalism in a linear manner (such as Marxism or
functionalism).
Instead, it emphasizes microhistories, local narratives, and subjective
experiences, recognizing the diversity of ways in which cities are experienced.

POSTMODERNISM
Urban Fragmentation
One of the central postmodern ideas is that cities of the 21st century are not
cohesive and unified entities but rather fragmented, marked by the coexistence
of multiple urban centers (policentrism) and extreme inequalities.
Example: Modern metropolises like Los Angeles or Mexico City have multiple
"centers," neighborhoods with different economic and social functions that
coexist but are not always interconnected.

POSTMODERNISM
Globalization and Advanced Capitalism
Postmodernism highlights how cities are deeply influenced by globalization,
leading to phenomena like cultural hybridization, the emergence of global cities,
and the integration of international markets.
Phenomena like gentrification or mass tourism are seen as results of advanced
capitalism in postmodern cities.

POSTMODERNISM
Symbolic Space and the Consumer Culture
Postmodern urban spaces are not only functional but also symbolic spaces
designed for consumption and visual experience.
Example: Malls, theme parks, and megaprojects (like Marina Bay Sands in
Singapore) become "stages" where people act as consumers rather than
citizens.

POSTMODERNISM
Heterogeneity and Plurality
Rather than seeking universal patterns, postmodernism emphasizes cultural
differences and pluralities. This includes recognizing how gender, ethnicity,
social class, and sexuality intersect in urban experiences.

POSTMODERNISM
Urban Phenomena in Postmodernism
1. Gentrification:
A process where working-class neighborhoods are transformed by capital
and consumption, displacing original residents in favor of a wealthier class.
2. Themed Cities:
Urban spaces become visual spectacles designed for tourism or
consumption, such as Las Vegas or Dubai.
These spaces often lack historical or community functions, prioritizing
entertainment and the market.
3. Segregation and Fragmentation:
Postmodern cities are marked by spatial polarization, where luxury spaces
(gated communities, malls) coexist with neglected and marginalized areas.
4. Hybrid Spaces and Glocalization:
The interaction between global and local elements creates unique urban
spaces, where traditional and global influences mix.
POSTMODERNISM
1.4 URBAN STRUCTURE AND SOCIETY
 URBAN STRUCTURE AND SOCIETY
Urban structure:
Urban structure refers to the spatial and functional organization of a city,
including the distribution of physical elements (buildings, streets, public
spaces) and their relationship to social dynamics.
Relationship between society and space:
Society not only inhabits urban spaces but also creates and transforms them
continuously based on its needs, culture, economy, and politics.
 COMPONENTS OF URBAN STRUCTURE

Physical space: Mobility:

Streets, squares, Connections and
buildings, flows of people,
infrastructures. vehicles, and
goods.

Land use: Public spaces:

Residential, Places for social
commercial, interaction, such
industrial, as parks, plazas,
recreational. and markets.
Society’s Impact on Urban Structure
Social factors in urban design:
Social classes and spatial segregation
Culture and symbolic space
Gender and accessibility
Designing cities that are safe and inclusive for women, children, and
people with disabilities.
Social processes and the transformation of urban spaces:
Gentrification
Informal urbanization
Unplanned growth
Citizen participation
The Impact of Urban Structure on Society
Effects on quality of life: Access to basic services and housing.
Social connection and cohesion: Spaces designed to foster casual
interactions, such as linear parks.
Social exclusion: Urban designs that perpetuate inequality, such as
highways dividing communities.
 VOCABULARY
1. Urban Heat Island Effect: A phenomenon where urban areas experience
higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to human activity and
infrastructure.
2. Social Infrastructure: The physical and organizational structures that
support social activities and community life, such as schools, hospitals,
libraries, and recreational spaces.
3. Urban Agriculture: The practice of growing food in cities, either in private or
community gardens, rooftops, or vacant lots.
4. Urban Mobility: The movement of people within an urban area, which can
include walking, cycling, public transportation, and private vehicles.
5. Place-making: The process of designing and creating public spaces that
foster community engagement, identity, and a sense of belonging.
1) Urban Heat Island Effect

2) Social Infrastructure

3) Urban Agriculture

4) Urban Mobility

5) Place-making