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5 views26 pagesPhysics Lesson 1 (2)
The document discusses the power factor of dielectrics, Gauss's Law, and various types of dielectric breakdown mechanisms. It explains how power loss varies with frequency and outlines different insulating materials, including solid, liquid, and gaseous types, along with their properties and uses. Additionally, it highlights the importance of dielectric strength and the characteristics of breakdown types such as intrinsic, thermal, and discharge breakdown.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
5 views26 pagesPhysics Lesson 1 (2)
The document discusses the power factor of dielectrics, Gauss's Law, and various types of dielectric breakdown mechanisms. It explains how power loss varies with frequency and outlines different insulating materials, including solid, liquid, and gaseous types, along with their properties and uses. Additionally, it highlights the importance of dielectric strength and the characteristics of breakdown types such as intrinsic, thermal, and discharge breakdown.
Uploaded by
lemonlemonCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 26
Here tan is called the power factor of the dielectric. If f, C, V are constants,
Naturally the power loss varies with frequency. The power loss at various
frequency ranges is shown in Fig. 1.17,
then
Power loss ———=
feiss ———+« , Orteal g
Frequency —_——
Fig. 117
In the electrical frequency regions the power loss is high, due to the diffusion
of ions from one equilibrium position to another.
In the optical region the power loss is less because here the dielectric loss
is associated with the electrons.
1.15 GAUSS'S LAW AND ITS BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Gauss’s law is the basic law of electrostatic interaction.
Statement
The total Electric flux (@) or the Total Normal Electric Induction (T.N.E.)
of the electric field F’over any closed surface is equal to a times the total charge
enclosed by the surface. Explanation
This law relates the flux through any closed surface and net charge enclosed
within the surface.
Here Zq is the net charge inside the closed surface.
called “Gaussian surface”. From this law it is seen that flux of
surface *S’ depends only on the value of the net charge insi
not on the location of the charges.
Case (i) When the electric charge is situated inside the
closed surface
Let a point charge +q is placed at a
point ‘O’ inside a closed surface ‘S’, as
shown in Fig. 1.18.
Let dS be a small area element at a
distance ‘r’ from ‘g’. The component of the
electric field Z’ normal to this surface is
Ecos 8.
The electric flux (do) over the surface
is given by
This closed surface is
P through a closed
ide the surface and
a = B dS? () Fig, 118
(or) do =E cos 8dS w-(2)
Pand dS?
where ‘6’ is the angle between E and dS.
The electric field due to charge at point ‘P’ on the surface placed at a
distance ‘r’ is given by
-l4
| ee (3)
Substituting equation (3) in equation (2) we get
. _-4_( dScos6
. nA (4) Here,
Gene = de is the solid angle subtended by the area dS at O.
. a (5)
“don ze do (
Hence the total flux through the entire closed surface is given by
=bdge—L
6 fu mf
a—Liag
4ney
This law holds even if there are several charges +q),+ qo, +43... inside the
surface as shown in Fig. 1.19.
Fig. 119
4
©
1
(or) @=—(q, +4, +4, +...)
gt nth
1 1
+: Total flux eat ate ht
1
g=+ ky
© [PRS > onus seeennaee
Case (ii): For a charge outside the sphere
Let the charge + ¢ be situated outside the closed surface at point O as choy
in Fig. 1.20,
Fig. 1.20
Let a small solid angle de from an elementary cone cut the closed surface
at two elements of area dS, and dS, at A and B, Magnitude of the flux through
dS, and dS, are equal.
Flux through dS, is inward and flux through dS, is an outward flux. Therefore
total flux through dS, and dS, shall be written as
Ee Sea ao
‘The entire closed surface can be considered to be made of pairs of elements
like dS, and dS,, Thus, from equation (8), we can see that the total flux due
to a charge outside, is zero,
1, It is used to find the electricfield. If, the charge distribution is 5°
symmetric, by constructing a closed surface (Gaussian surface), the
electric field can be find out,
2. Gauss's law is one of the fundamental equation of electromagnet
theory. i.e., it is one of the Maxwell's equations.
3. One can derive coulomb's law from Gauss’s | Gauss's law #
more fundamental than coulomb's law, aa 1.16 DIELECTRIC STRENGTH AND INTRODUCTION TO
INSULATION BREAKDOWN IN SOLIDS, LIQUIDS
AND GASES
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field and if the electric field is
increased, when the field exceeds the critical field, the dielectric loses its insulating
property and becomes conducting i.e, large amount of current flows through it.
This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.
The electric field strength at which the dielectric breakdown occurs is known
as dielectric strength.
There are different mechanisms by which the dielectric break down takes
place. Some of the types of breakdowns are
@ Intrinsic (or) avalanche breakdown.
Gi) Thermal breakdown
(iii) Chemical and electrochemical breakdown
(iv) Discharge breakdown
(v) Defect breakdown.
(i) Intrinsic Breakdown
When a dielectric is subjected to electric field then the electrons in the
valence band acquire sufficient energy and go to conduction band by crossing the
energy gap and hence become conducting electrons. Therefore large current flows
and is called intrinsic breakdown (or) zener breakdown.
Impurities in the dielectric material create additional energy levels in the energy
gap and so they help the intrinsic breakdown to occur at lower applied voltages.
Avalanche Breakdown
This conduction electrons on further application of field, then collide with
the valence electrons in the co-valent bond and remove more electrons hence
transferring them as conduction electrons.
These secondary conduction electrons again dislodge some other bound
electrons in the valence band and this process continues as a chain reaction.
Therefore very large current flows through the dielectrics and hence called as
avalanche breakdown.
ree
pu :
Characteristics
(a) It can occur even at lower temperatures.
(b) It requires relatively large electric fields.
(©) This kind of breakdown occurs in thin samples.
(d) It does not depend on the configuration of electrodes and shape of the
(e) It occurs within a short span of time (milli seconds)
(ii) Thermal Breakdown
In general, when a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, heat is
generated. This generated heat is dissipated by the dielectric. In some cases the
heat generated will be very high compared to the heat dissipated. Under such
conditions the temperature inside the dielectric increases and heat may produce
breakdown. This type of breakdown is known as thermal breakdown.
Characteristics
(a) It occurs at higher temperatures.
(b) It requires moderate electric fields.
(c) It depends on the size and shape of the dielectric material.
(d) Since, the dielectric loss is proportional to , the breakdown occurs
at relatively lower field strength for ac. fields than that of d.c. fields.
(e) It occurs in the order of milliseconds.
(iii) Chemical and Electrochemical Breakdown
This type of breakdown is almost similar to the thermal breakdown. If the
temperature is increased mobility of the ions will increase and hence the
electrochemical reaction may be induced to take Place.
Therefore when mobility of ions are increased, insulation resistance
decreases and hence dielectrics become cond: is
ting. Thi: e
called as chemical and electro chemical breakdown, Cad dnc
Characteristics
(a) It occurs only at low temperatures,
(b) It occurs even in the absence of electric field, In rubber, due to oxide
produced in air, they gradually lose their dielectric property.
(c) It depends on concentration of ions, magnitude of leakage nt. ean
(iv) Discharge Breakdown
In some dielectrics occluded gas bubbles may be present. When these type
of dielectrics are subjected to electric field, the gas present in the material will
easily ionize and hence produce large ionization current and is known as discharge
breakdown.
Characteristics
(a) It occurs at low voltages,
(b) It occurs due to the Presence of occluded gas bubbles.
(c) It depends upon the frequency of the applied voltage.
(v) Defect Breakdown
Some dielectrics have defects such as cracks, Pores, blow holes etc. These
vacant position may have moisture (or) impurities which leads to breakdown called
as defect breakdown.
Remedies for Breakdown Mechanisms
To avoid breakdown, the dielectric material should have the following
Properties.
(i) It should have high resistivity.
Gi) Te must possess high dielectric strength,
(iii) It should have sufficient mechanical strength,
(iv) Dielectric loss should be low.
(v) Thermal expansion should be small,
(vi) It should be fire proof.
(vii) It should be resistive to oils, liquids and gases etc.
(viii) Tt must have less density.
(ix) There should not be any defects.
(x) It must be in pure form. en =
| 1.17 CLASSIFICATION OF INSULATING MATERIALS
| There are three categories of insulating materials viz,
1 Solid insulating materials
} 2. Liquid insulating materials
a 3. Gaseous insulating materials.
1.18 SOLID INSULATING MATERIALS
(a) Mica
It is made of silicate aluminium with silicates of soda potash and magnesia,
| Properties
(i) It is crystalline in nature.
(ii) It can be split into thin sheets easily.
| Gi) It is rigid and strong
Gv) It has high dielectric strength and low power loss.
(v) It’s Dielectric constant varies from 5 to 7.
(vi) It’s Dielectric strength varies from 500 to 1000 KV/mm.
Uses
It is used as insulator in commutator segment.
It is used as a separator in electrical machines, switch gears, heatits
devices, iron boxes, hot plates as insulator,
3. It is used in the form of tapes in high voltage alternators.
(b) Asbestos
It is a naturally occuring mineral
z ae material of fibrous structure made 4
magnesium silicate.
Properties
(i) It has high dielectric loss,
(ii) It possess low dielectric strength.
Gii) can withstand high temperature. Uses
1. It is used in electrical machines to withstand high temperature.
2. It is used in the form of paper, tape, cloth and board, for insulation,
3. It is used to manufacture panel boards, insulating tubes, cylinders etc.
y 4 Ibis used as covering sheets, shelions, etc.
5. It is used in ovens, iron boxes etc.
6.
It is applied in switching devices and in circuit breakers.
(c) PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride)
It is produced by treating acetylene and hydrogen chloride in the presence
of a catalyst at a temperature of about 50°C.
Properties
(It has good mechanical and electrical Properties.
(i) It is non-corrosive..
wy
Uses
1. It is used in the manufacturing of PVC films, tapes and pipes.
2. It is used as insulation for batteries, conductors and cables.
(d) Rubber
It is made of organic polymers may be natural or synthetic. The synthetic
rubber is made by co-polymerisation of iso-butane and iso-propane.
Properties
(i) It has good electrical and thermal properties.
(ii) It’s dielectric constant varies between 2.5 to 5.
(iii) Synthetic rubber is applicable for high temperature ranges.
(iv) it possess. high tensile strength.
Uses
1. It is used as insulating materials for electric wires, tapes, coating,
transformers etc.
2. It is used in the construction of storage battery housings. (e) Ceramic Materials (Potters Earth ren,
These materials are produced by mixing finely ground clay metal oxide
with water to make it as a paste and is shaped t0 OHF requirements. It Is dried
cand then heated to a very high temperature (1200°C = 170°C).
In general, they are non-metallic organic compounds such as silicates,
aluminates, oxides, carbides, nitrates and hydrates.
Properties
(i) They are Hard, dense and brittle.
(ii) They are available both in crystalline and amorphous forms.
(iii) The dielectric constant varies from 4 to 10.
(iv) They have excellent dielectric and mechanical properties.
(v) They can withstand very high temperature and very high voltage.
Uses
1. They are used in plug holders and cathode heaters.
2. They are used vacuum type ceramic metal seals.
3, They are used for the manufacture of switches, plugs,
etc.
5. They also has applications in electric stoves, kettles etc.
fuse holds, sockets
(f) Glass
Glass is an inorganic material made by the fusion of different oxides
examples: silicon oxide, zinc oxide and magnesium oxide.
Properties
(i) It is brittle and hard.
(ii) It has low dielectric loss and has good mechanical strength.
(iii) They are highly chemical resistant to most corrosive agents
(iv) It act asa good insulator with good appearance
(v) Itis insoluble in water.
Uses
1. They are applied in manufacture of capacitors
2. It is used in radio and televisi i
toa levision tubes, electrical lamps and laminated
3. Toughened glass is used for insulation in extra high voltage lines i-¢ |
above 100 Kilovolts. 1.19 LIQUID INSULATING MATERIALS =
Liquid insulating materials can be divided into three groups,
(i) Mineral insulating oils: Transformer oil, cable oil, capacitor oil et
_. t il 7
(ii) Synthetic insulating oils: Askarels, arclors, sovol and sovtol.
(ii) Miscellaneous insulating oils: Vegetable oils, vaseline and sili
Generally liquid dielectric materials have mode:
insulating liquids improve the insulating propertie
(especially fibrous materials) by eliminating the other
dissipation media and facilitate coolings of the wind
losses in the windings. They are sometimes Tequi
certain applications like circuit breakers.
Icon liquids.
Tate dielectric Strengths. But
S of other solid materials
"Bases. They offer good heat
ndings which emit heat due to
ired for extinguishing arcs in
(i) Mineral insulating oils
This oil is obtained from crude petroleum by distillation. This oil is used
to transfer heat by convection from windings and core to the Cooling surfaces. It
is used to maintain the insulator of the windings. Now:
adays synthetic oil is used
as an insulator in transformers in the place of transformer oil (mineral oil) because
synthetic oils are very much resistant to oxidation and to fire hazards.
Properties
(i) It possess high oxidation resistance and good thermal stability.
(ii) It has high dielectric strength and high viscosity.
Uses:
They are used in transformers and capacitors.
(ii), Synthetic Insulating Oils
When we compare this with mineral insulating oil, the properties are
degraded. Askarels have thermal stability upto 110°C and are manufactured from
chlorinated hydro-carbons.
Properties
w
These oils are very cheap and non-inflammable.
(ii)
They have longer life and safer in operating conditions.
Uses
: ers.
They are used as coolant and insulant in high voltage transform RET Ag
(iii) Miscellaneous Insulating Oils
ve stability upto 200°C. Vaseline has
___ Silicon liquids are costly and they hay c :
high viscosity and high dielectric constant. It is used for impregnation of papers
used in capacitors.
Properties
@ The dielectric strength of these liquids is same as that of mineral oils
(ii) The power factor is very low.
Uses
1. They are used in High Voltage (H.V) transformers.
2. They are used to increase the surface resistivity of ceramic insulators.
1.20 GASEOUS INSULATING MATERIALS
(i) Vacuum
Vacuum means free space without air. So creating a vacuum place is a type
of insulation.
Uses
It is used in (i) X-ray tubes (ii) Electronic valves (iii) Particle
accelerators (iv) Microwave tubes (v) Low-loss capacitors, etc.
Gi) Air
Air is a naturally occuring dielectric. The atmospheric gas consists of a
number of gases say Nz, 02, He, CO2, Ne etc.
Properties
(i) The dielectric ions of air is almost zero (tano =0).
(ii) The dielectric strength of air ranges from 3 to 5 kV/mm.
Uses
(They act as insulators in switches, plugs and various electrical machines.
Gi) They are used in low voltage applications.
Giiy) They are also used in over head transmission lines. _J
b ———
(iil) Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the important gaseous dielectric used after air.
Properties
(i) It is chemically inert gas.
(ii) It prevent oxidation.
(iii) It reduces damage to the apparatus used.
Uses
(i) They are used in high voltage gas filled pressure cables.
(ii) They also has applications in capacitors.
(iv) Sulphur Hexafluoride
‘When sulphur is burnt in the atmosphere of fluorine, sulphur hexafluoride
is produced.
Properties
(i) It is highly stable.
ii) It has high dielectric strength.
Uses
(i) It is used as a constant in X-ray tubes.
(ii) It is used in transformers, electrical switches, etc.
1,21 CAPACITOR OR CONDENSER
A capacitor or a condenser is a device which essentially consists of two
conducting surfaces separated by an insulating material, (called dielectric) say oil
(or) mica. The capacitance of a capacitor increases with the presence of a
dielectric.
Capacitance (or) Capacity (C)
The capacitors have a property known as capacitance (or) capacity. The
Property of a capacitor to store electrical energy is be called its capacitance.
Hence the capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the amount of charge
required to create a unit potential difference between the plates. OO
EE a
If a charge of q coulomb is given to one of the two plates of a capaci
and if a potential difference of V volts is established between the two, then i
capacitance is
The unit of capacitance is coulomb/volt and is also called farad.
. ite., 1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt
Thus the unit farad is defined as the capacitance of a capacitor which needs
a charge of one coulomb to establish a potential difference of 1 volt between the
plates.
Definition
A capacitor has a capacity of one farad if one coulomb of charge is
transferred from one conductor to the other, when the difference of potential
between the two conductor is one volt.
Since the unit of capacitance farad is too large, for practical purposes, much
smaller units like microfarad (or) picofarad is used.
1 pf= 107° farads
1 pf= 10" | farads
1.22 PRINCIPLE OF A CAPACITOR
Principle
A capacitor consists of two conductors, one charged and the other usually
earth connected. The conducing surfaces may be in the form of either circular,
rectangular or spherical. The purpose of a capacitor is to store electrical ene’)
by an electrostatic stress in the dielectric.
A parallel plate capacitor is shown in Fig. 1.21
Let A be the charged conductor and B the earth connected conductor. In the
absence of B, let the charge on A be +q and the potential V. -. The capacity © Se
‘ Fig. 1.21
If B is kept near A, the electrostatic induction takes place, the free + ve
charge flows to the earth and B will have the bound - ve charge. Consequently,
the potential of A decreases and its capacity increases.
‘This is because with the presence of B, the amount of workdone in bringing
a unit + ve charge from infinity to A decreases there be force of repulsion due
to A and force attraction due to B.
So the resultant force of repulsion on a unit + ve charge is reduced, and
the constant of workdone is reduced. Hence the potential of A decreases and ||
therefore the capacity of A is increased.
1,23 TYPICAL CAPACITORS CONSTRUCTION AND TYPES
Capacitors can be classified into three categories
(a) Capacitors with solid dielectric
(b) Capacitors with air-as the dielectric
(©) Electrolytic capacitors
Examples for capacitors with solid dielectric
The Leyden Jar, Mica capacitor, Paper capacitor.
Example for capacitors with air dielectric
Variable air capacitor. commonly used capacitors ore as follows
™ pacitors and Electrol,
Mica capacitors, ceramic capacitors, paper ca
capacitors
Some! of the vortous types of capocttors are explained below
(a) The Leyden Jar: (with solid dielectric) ;
This is a form of parallel plate capacitor It consists of a glass jar (or) bone
which is coated with tin foil upto about two thirds of its beight on the outer ang
inner surfaces of the glass jar. If the jar is held on hand the outer coating is ean
connected.
‘The inner coating is charged with + ve (or) — ve electricity. The contact with
the inner coating is obtained with the help of a brass rod ending in a chain on
one side and a knob on the other side as shown in Fig. 1.22.
lic Kaob
1
Glass jar
‘Tin foils
= ‘Earth
Fig. 1.22
Here the inner and the outer coatings serve as the two plates apacitor
c tw
and the lass in between serves asthe diclecic: Ths ic simakr spall pe
capacitor and the capacity ofthe Leyden jar is C= "02-4 where ey is the speifi
inductive capacity of glass, A is the overlappin i
° ; " ig area of tin foils between the inner
the outer coating and d is the thickness of glass. Although its capacity
small, it is able to withstand hi; coed
capacitor. high potential differences. It is a type of fixed (b) Mica capacitor (with solid dielectric)
These are multiplate type consisting of a series of plates. Alternate plates
being connected together and separated by thin mica sheets (Fig. 1.23).' The
assembly is housed in a metal or ebonite case having two wire ends to which
the two sets of plates are connected.
Fig. 123
Silver-mica capacitors have silver films deposited on thin mica dielectric
sheets. Mica capacitors have very low power factors on ac. and are suitable for
use at radio frequencies.
; = Ne eA ;
The total capacity of such a capacitor is given by C= a where N is
the number of capacitors grouped in parallel, €, is the specific inductive capacity
of mica, A is the area of each coating of tin foil and d is the thickness of each
mica sheet.
These type of capacitors are used in high voltage circuits where the insulation
is important.
(c) Ceramic capacitors
In this type the discs of ceramic material are coated with metallic silver on
Opposite faces. The ceramic disc acts as the dielectric and silver coating are plates.
‘These have very low power factor which decreases with increase in frequency and
Suitable for shortwave radio circuits.
The ceramic and mica capacitors are more costly. 4-ze
oman N
Paper capacitors |
In this a thin long strip of paraffin waxed bes fl kept in
coatings of tin (or) aluminium foil and rolled into a cylinder,
The strips are tightly rolled and
the whole capacitors is dipped in paraffin
(or) oil. This is just a parallel plate
capacitor where the plates viz., the tin
or aluminium foils with the dielectric in
between are rolled up so as to occupy a
Very small space as shown in Fig. 1.24.
With paraffin waxed paper the thickness
of the dielectric is very small and hence
the capacity of the capacitor is very high.
These capacitors are very cheap. The dielectric constant of paper jg a
3.5. These are suitable in audio frequency circuits as by-pass or coupling Apaciton,
betiveey ‘
Fig. 1.24
(€) Variable air capacitor
This type of capacitor is commonly used in wireless sets and clecroy
circuits,
It consists of two sets of Aluminium plates. One set of plates is fixed (a)
and the other set of plates can be rotated (B), by a knob (K) attached to it,
Fig. 1.25 The capacity of the capacitor can be uniformly varied by rotating the knob.
Fig. 1.25(a). The air between the plates acts as the dielectric and smaller the air
gap the larger will be the capacity of the capacitor.
Fig. 1.25 (b), (c), and (d) show the variation in the area of overlap between
the plates A and B.
Fig. 1.25 (b) Corresponds the maximum capacity where the sets of plates
overlap each other.
Fig. 1.25 (d) corresponds to the minimum capacity where the rotating plates
are completely rotated out of fixed plates.
If the total number of plates is ‘n’ then number of capacitors will be
n—1. Hence the total capacitance of such a variable capacitor is
all A
cu2 es P
The symbols have their usual meanings.
(f) Electrolytic capacitor
These are of two types (i) Wet type (ii) Dry type.
(i) Wet type
A wet type electrolytic capacitor consists of two aluminium electrodes A
and C dipped in a solution of ammonium borate as shown in Fig. 1.26.
solution
Fig. 1.26 an cathode, ON paring ade, ,
the arwnse, This (tn i any servlet
er me pha
The arrangement can now be used as @ capac tt ile fae
solution ax the other plate, and the slain arrangement is Very Sarge, ‘Thi,
dielectric Inyer ix very thin, the capacitance ¢ o in ac, Circuits,
capacitor can be used only in d.c, circuits and can't be ued in run
Je and C serv
formed on
‘The plate A serve ax ance
very thin film of aluminium oxide ts
(il) Dry type
In dry type, + ve and ~ ve electrodes of aluminium foil are separ bya
porous paper or by a cotton gauze saturated with either « Hea aa ee
containing the electrolyte. This is formed into # roll and house a ‘ence f
box, which is usually waxed. These have very high capacitance ee
in filter circuits in radio ete.,
(g) Guard ring capacitor
The guard ring capacitor is the modified form of parallel plate capacitor
Fig. 1.27 (a)] to reduce the “edge effect” (or) fringing effect of the field nea
the edges of the parallel plate capacitor.
In guard ring capacitor, the electric field is uniform even at edges of the
parallel plates. In this capacitor a ring G is used around the plate A and it is in
plane with it.
‘The inner diameter of G is slightly longer than the diameter of A. The air
gap between A and G is very small as shown in Fig. 1.27 (b). The diameter of
the plate B is equal to the outer diameter of G. The field between A and B is
uniform throughout the common area between them. The irregularity in the field
occurs at the outer edge of the guard ring.
© ®
Fig. 1.27 ‘The effective area of the plate is given by A’= Area of the plate A+ %
Area of the circular gap between A and G.
‘This is used as an absolute standard of capacitance.
1,24 APPLICATIONS OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
(CAPACITORS AND TRANSFORMERS)
‘The dielectric materials has three major applications
(@) It is used as a dielectric medium in capacitors,
(©) It is used as insulating materials in transformers.
(©) It is used in Industries and dielectric heating.
(a) Dielectrics in capacitors
For dielectrics to be used in capacitors, it should possess the following
Properties.
Properties:
It must have high dielectric constant,
It should possess high dielectric strength.
It should have high specific resistance.
It should also have low dielectric loss.
rFePN Se
1, Thin sheets of papers filled with synthetic oils are used as dielectrics
in the capacitors
2. Tissue papers and polypropylene films filled with dielectrol are used in
power capacitors.
| | 3. Mica is used as dielectrics in discrete capacitors. phoxphate dn tise iit wer type
4 An etectntytie sotation oF lit
electrolyte caynte ttn,
An eloctratythy puunte niadle ty cof avnricnnit
wel (i) Dey type elecirafitle capacitors,
Jy ow Wart titanate: an calclam titanate are neg
high frequency eapmeltors texpectively,
V tetraborate and glycol jy
6 Covmunte avatertale ate
An dive capmtedtons and
(b) Tnavlating materials in transformers
Vor dietectrien to act ax (nsutatinng anaterlals,
popertion
Properties:
1. Te should have low dielectrle constant.
it should poswess the following
2. Ae should possess low dielectric loss,
4, Te must have high resistance,
4 Te must possors high dielectric strength,
$. Ue should have adequate chemical stability.
6. Ie must have high moisture resistance ete.
Uses:
1, Ceramics and polymers are used as insulators,
Paper, rubber, plastics, waxes ete are used to form thin films, sheets, |
tapes, rods, ete, t
1, PVC, (Poly Vinyl Chloride) is used to manufacture pipes, batteries,
cables ete,
4. Glass, mica, asbestos, alumina are used in ceramics,
Porcelain is used in high voltage power lines.
6. Liquid dielectrics such as petroleum oils, silicone olls are widely used
in transformers, circuit breakers, etc.
7. Mineral insulating oils obtained from crude petrolewn by distillation is used
as transformer oll, because of high resistive to oxidation and fire hazards.
8. Synthetic olls such as askarels, sovol, ete are used as a coolant and
insulant in high voltage transformers.
9, Gases such as vacuum, air, nitrogen, sulphur hexa fluoride are used in
X-ray tubes, switches, high voltage gus filled pressure cables, coolants
respectively,
| (c) Dielectrics in industries and dielectric heating
(i) Industrial applications
i: Dielectrics Possessing piezo-electric effect is used in gan lighters,
microphones, phonographs, etc.
2. Dielectric possessing inverse piezo-electric effect is used in quartz
watches, ultrasonic dryers, cleaning the semiconductor wafers, ultravonic
transducer etc.
(li) Dielectric heating
Dielectric heating is the process of heating the insulating materials at a very
high voltage under suitable frequency at which the dielectric loss becomes
maximum, so that the dielectric loss will come out in the form of heat. Hence
adequate heating was done at high voltages.
1. Dielectric heating is the principle used in microwave ovens,
2. Dielectric heating is also used in the dehydration of food, tobacco, etc.
1,25 PIEZOELECTRICITY AND PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS
Piezoelectricity
When mechanical stress is applied on dipolar crystals, electricity is produced
due to the displacements of dipoles. This phenomenon is called piezoelectricity
and those crystals that exhibit this property are termed as piezoelectric crystals.
Piezo-Electric Crystals
The crystals which produces piezo-electric effect and converse piezo-electric
effect are termed as piezo-electric crystals.
Examples
Quartz, Topaz, Tourmaline Barium titanate, Rochelle salts, Lead titanate, etc.
are some of the examples for piezoelectric crystals. Quertz crystal
A typical example for a piezo-electric
crystal (Quartz), is as shown in Fig 1.28. It
hasan hexagonal shape with pyramids
