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REGULATION-2021

PHYSICS FOR
ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
(For EEE Branches )
For Second Semester
B.E. &B.Tech Degree Course
(Subject Code: PH 3202)
Includes: Solved Problems Part AQuestions &Answers
ANNA University Solved Question Papers

Dr.G.Senthil Kumar
DrS.Murugavel
VRB PUBLISHERS Pvt. Ltd.
Diclectric Muterials and Insulalion

DIEELECTYRICAL
PROFERTI38 1

MATERIAL8 With field

Introduction - Polarization, dipole moment, polarization

vector and relative permitivity - Actlve and passive
dielectrics - Polarization mechanicsms in dielectrics -
Electronicpolarization -lonic Polarization-Orientation
Polarization - Interfacial (or) space-charge polarization -
Total electric polarization -Comparizon of various types
of polarization mechanisms-Frequency and temperature
effects of all the polarization mechanism-Internal field
(or) Local field and clausius - Mosotti relattion
Dielectricloss -Gauss?s laW and its boundary conditions -
Dielectric strength and introduction to insulation
breakdown in solids, liquids and gases-classification of
insualting materials-solid insulating materials - Liquid
insulating materials-Gaseous insulating materials
capacitor or condenser-Principle of a capacitor-Typical
capacitors construction and types-Applications of
dielectric materials (capacitors and transformers) -
Piezoelectricity and piezoelectric crystals-Ferro UNIT I
electricity and ferro-electric materials-Quartz
Oscillators-Filters-Comparison among filters-Anna
University Solved Problems-Additional Solved
Problems-Assignment problems-Anna University Part
'A' Questions & answers-Additional part 'A' Questions
& Answers - Anna University Part B' Questions -
Additional Part 'B'Questions.
neese
 Physics for Electrical
L.2 Engineering
1.1 INTRODUCTION or more are termed
U have an energy gap j three eV as
Solids which possible to excite the electrons from the
is almost not
N insulators. Inthese materials, it applied field. Generally dielectrics are also calld
band by an
valcnce band to conduction conductors of electricity. However, they allow movemen
as insulators, thercby poor temperatures, causing asmall flow of
cument.
T abnormally high
some elcctrons at
non-metallic materials of high specfic resistance p, negative
1 Dielectrics are
resistance (-a), and large insulation resistance
temperature coefficient of
temperature, applied electric field
moisture,
Insulation resistance will be affected by
and age of diclectrics.
POLARIZATION, DIPOLE
1.2 DEFINITIONS:
POLARIZATION VECTOR AND RELATIVE
MOMENT,
PERMITTIVITY
(i) Electric Polarisation
When an external electric field is applied to + t+ +
each
the dielectrics, the field exerts a force on
positive charges in its own direction while negative Dielectric
charges are pushed in the opposite directions.
slab

Consequently, an electrical doublet or dipole is

created in all the atoms inside the dielectric as
shown in Fig 1.1. Thus, the process of producing
electric dipoles insde the dielectrics by an external
electric feld is called polarisation in dielectrics.
Fig. 1.1
(i) Polarisation Vector
If the strength of the electric field E is increased, the strength of the induceu
dipole also increases. The induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity O
the electric field.

i.e.,

where a. is the constant of proportionality, called the polarizability.

of
If u is the averagc dipole moment per molecule and Nis the number
momen!
molecules per unit volume, the polarisation vector Pis defined as dipole
per unit volume of he dielectric material.
Dielectric Materials and Insulation

(iii) Electric Displacement Vector ()

Electric displacement vector (or) electric induction D is a quantity which
is used for analysing electrostatic fields in the presence of dielectrics, which is
given by

...(1)
4T 1
We know electric field intensity

4nE ..2)
From (l) and (2), we can write
D=e
...(3)

Deeo(1+) E (Since E,=l +Xel

where x is the electrical susceptibility

(iv) Relation between and é

We know

Since P= EXE, we have

...(4)
Equating (3) and (4) we have

...(5)

Note: The quantitiy D is similar to the magnetic induction Bio

magnetism.

() Electrical Susceptibility he
The polarisation vector P'is proportional to the applied electric field E for
field strengths that are not too large. So we can write
 Plysies for Electrical
Engune ring
U (or) Peo
X, IS a characteristic of every dielectric and which is called electrical

susceptibility.

We can write
Since eo(er-)
¬0 (E,-1)
E0

-.2)

(vi) Dielectric Constant (e) whinh

the share of the electric stress
The dielectric constant determines
between the absolute permitivity g and
absorbed by the material. It is the ratio
given by,
the permitivity of free space 0, and is

dielectrics.
'e' is a dimensionless quantity and it is a measure of polarisation in the
The value of &,= 1 for air or vacuum.

For solids &,>I, for lass it is 4 to 7, for diamond &, 5.68, for silicon it
is 12, for gemanium it is 16,for Ehanol it is 24.3 and for water at 0°C, e,= 87.8.
(vii) Capacitance (C)
If Ais the area of the condenser C" and ' is the distance of separation
between the plates of the condenser C", then the capacitance of the condenser
'C is given by
Dielectric Materials and Insulation

Where, , is the dielectric constant of the material enclosed in between

the condenser C and

e, is the permitivity in free space (8.854 x10 "c'r'm)

1.3 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE DIELECTRICS 1

The dielectric materials may be classifcd as solid, liquid and gas diclcctrics.
Insolid form they may be polymeric such as nylon, pve, rubber, bakelite.
asbestos and wool or mey belong to the ceramic family such as glass, silica, mica.
porcelain, etc.
In liquidform they may be mineral insulaing oils, synthetic insulating oils, eic.
Ingaseous form they may be air, nitrogen, sulphur hexaluoride, inert gases etc.
The dielectrics can also be clasified as active and passive dielecirics based
on their applications.
Active Dielectrics
When dielectric is subjected to extermal electric ficld, if the dielectric actively
accept the electricity, then they are terned as active dielectrics. Thus active dielectrics
are the dielectrics which can easily adapt iself to store the electrical energy n it.

Examples: Piezo-electrics, Ferro-electric etc.

Passive Dielectrics
These dielectrics are also called insulating materials. As the name itself
suggest that it will act as an insulator, conduction will not take place through this
dielectrics. Thus passive dielectrics are the dielectrics which restricts the flow of
electrical energy in it.
Examples: All insulating materials such as glass, mica, etc.,

1,4 POLARIZATION MECHANISMS IN DIELECTRICS

Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charged particles under the

action of the extermal electric field. There are number of devices based on this
concept. Those devices are rectifiers, resonators, amplifiers and transducers, which
converts electrical energy to oher forms of energy.
In moderm computers, memory devices are also based on this concept.
 Physics for Electrical
L6

responsible for electric

Engine ring
Several microscopic mechanisms are the macroscopic
polarizatpolioanrizveclaioon.r
U
Specially, in the case of de. electric field,
N
Parises due to following four types of microscopic
polarization
mechanisms.
() Electronic polarization
(ü) lonic polarization
(ii) rientation polarization
(iv) Space charge polarization.
1.5 ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION
Electronic, polarization occurs due tothe displacement of positively charged
nucleus and negatively charged electrons in opposite directions, when an external
electric feld is applied, and thereby creates a dipole moment in the dielectric.

.:. The induced dipole moment =aE

where a - electronic polarizability.
Monoatomic gases exhibit this kind of polarization. Electronic polarizability
is proportional to the volume of the atoms and is
independent of temperature
Calculation of Electronic Polarizability Nucleas
() Without Field
Let us consider a classical model of an atom.
Ze.
Assume the charge of nucleus of that atom is +Ze/
The nucleus is surrOunded by an electron cloud of
charge -Ze, which is distributed in a sphere of
radius R as shown in Fig. 1.2.
-Ze
The charge density of the charged sphere =T L-Sphere of electronic charge
-3 Ze
(or) charge density = ..(1)
4R Fig. 1.2
() With Field
When the dielectric is placed in a d.c. electric field E, two phenomenon
0ccur.
(i) Lorentz force due to the electric field tends to separate the nucleus and
the electron cloud from their equilibrium position.
(ü) After separation, an atractive coulomb force arises between the nucleus
and elecron cloud which ties to maintain the original equilibrium positon.
Dielectric Materials and lnsulation 1.7

Let x be the displacement Displaced

made by the electron cloud from the Nucleus Equlibrium
position
positive core, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
Since the core is heavy, it will not
move when compared t0 the T
movement of electron cloud. Here
x<<R, where R is radius of the -Ze Fielddirection 1
atom. -Original position
Since Lorentz and Coulomb
forces are equal and opposite in
nature, cquilibrium is reached. Fig. 1.3

At Equilitbrium
Lorentz force = Coulomb force
Lorentz force = Charge x Field
=-ZeE ...(2)
The negative sign indicates the repulsive force.
Coulomb force =Charge x Field
=+Ze x

The positive sign indicates the attractive force.

Total negative charges () enclosed
inthe sphere of radius x ...(3)
. Coulomb force = Charge x

Here, Total number of

negative charges () enclosed in Charge density Volume of
the sphere of radius x
of clcctrons the sphere
Substituting the charge density from equation (1), we get
Total number of negative charges (0)-3 Ze 4
enclosed in the sphere of radius x 4 TR'

R ..4)
Substituting equation (4) in (3) we get
 Physics for Electricat
1.8
Engine ring
-Zer3
Ze
Coulomb force = R
4TE 0x2

-2:
4ne oR .<5)
Equation (2) = Equation (5).
At the equilibrium position,
.. -ZeE=

Zex
E=
4TE R

4neR'E
(or) x= ...(6)
Ze
(x) s proportional to apnliad
Therefore, the displacement of electron cloud
electric field E.

Dipole moment
and-Ze are displaced by a distance
Now the two electric charges + Ze
induced dipole moment which is
under the influence of the field and form an
given by
displacement
Induced dipole moment (He) =Magnitude of charge x
= Zex

have
Substituting the value of x from equation (6), we
Ze4ne R'E
Ze

(or) leoc E
..(7)

where a,= 4re R (Farad-m) is called electronic polarization which is

proportional to volume of the atom.
Aelation between , and Dleleetrle Constants
IW Aiww,he induwd olctoie dile onets ppotional totheaypled
( This dyne mment ee unt wlune is vlted electronte polarlatlon, This

Blevtrie olrizatiou -M,

whoe N tho muntber of atouns 1
(o) .(8)

(or)

Sixe o (e ), we can wrlte

(or) e o (e1)
N ...(9)

1,6 IONIC POLARZATION

lonic polarization arises due to the displacement of cations (+ve ions) and
enions (- ve ions) from its original position (Fig. 1.4) in opposite directions, in
the presence of electrie field as shown in Fig. 1.5.
The displacement is independent of temperature and it occurs in ionic solids.
Example: NaCl erystal.

Na CI
Na CI

Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5

Without field With field
Explanation: Let us assume that there are one cation and one anion present in
each unit cell of the ionic crystal. (NaCl). When the electric field is applied, let
* and x be the distances to which positive and negative ions move from their
equilibrium positions. The resultant dipole moment per unit cell, due to ionic
displacement is given by
 Physles for Kleetrcal
Enginering
Xdisplacement
magnitude of charge
Induced diole moment 4=e4t )
shifl of -ve jon
+ve ion and x, is the from thei
where is the shift of
cquil1brium positions. produced is proportional to
applied, the restoring force
1 When the field is
the displacements.

For + ve ion,
F= Bxi .(2)
Restoring force F oX or

For - ve ion
..(3)
B2r2
Restoring force F oc 2(or) F= masses
restoring force constants,which depend on the
Here, Bi andB? are frcquency of the molccule in which ions are prescnt.
of the ions and the angular on i
of + ve ion and 'M is the mass of - ve ion and
If 'm' is the mass
the angular frequency., then
B, =mo; ..4)

B,= Ma, ..5)

where , - angular frequency.

+ ve ion can be
Substituting for Bi in equation (2), the restoring force for
written as

F=mapx ...(6)

we know F= eE .7)
Equating cquation (6) and (7), wc get

eE
...(8)
Diclectric Materials and Insulation

Similarly for the negative ion we can write

eE
..9)
Ma,
Adding equation (8) and (9) we get

:. x1+X) =eE( 1.
+
1
...(10)
aó mM

Substituting equation (10) in (1), we get

o m M

(or) j= 0; E
where -ionic polarizability, given by
11

So, the ionic polarizability () is inversely proportional to the square of the

natural frequency of the ionic molecule and directly proportional to its reduced
1 1
mass which is given by M

Note: For most materiais the ionic polarizability is less than the
electronic polarizability and typically a, 0.1 a

1.7 ORIENTATION POLARIZATION

Polar molecules are the molecules which have permanent dipole moments
even in the absence of an electric field as shown in Fig. l.6.
The orientation polarisation arises due to the presence of polar molecule in
the dielectric medium. When a dielectric which consists of polar molecules is kept
in an electric field, the molecules align themselves along the field direction. So
there is a resultant dipole moment along the field direction, as shown in Fig. 1.7
 Physley for Eecrieal
L12
Engine ring

T With field
Without field
1
Fig, 1.7
Fig. 1.6 charges d
CH,Cl molecule, the +ve and - ve
Explanation: In the case of a electronegativity than hydrogen, Therefore the
more strongly than hydrogen
not coincide. The CI has electrons towards it more
chlorine atoms pull the
bonded exists a net dipole moment.
the absence of field, there
atoms. Therefore, even in along the direction af
applied, positive portion align
Now, when thefield isalign inthe opposite direction of the feld. This kind
field and negative portion polarization.
polariation is called as orientation thermal
of is increased, the
temperature. When temperature
This depends on
the alignment.
energy tends to randomize
paramagnetism, net intensity of magnetisation
From Langevin's theory of

3K;T
same principle can be applied to the application of clectric ficld
Since, the
We can write.

Orientation polarization P, =
3KgT
where N is the number of atoms

(or) Po= NagE

where - Orientational Polarizability

i..,

Therefore orientational polarizability is inversely propornional to the

temperature of the material.
Dielectric Materials and Insulation 113

1.8 INTERFACIAL (OR) SPACE-CHARGE POLARIZATION

The interjacial (or) space-charge polarization occurs due to itfusion of
ions, along the field direction and giving rise to redistribution of charges in the
dielectrics.

Electrode Electrode
1

Without field
With field
Fig. 1.8 Fig. 1.9
Explanation
Without the application of external field, the ions are orderly arranged as
shown in Fig. 1.8.
Now, when the field is applied, due to peripheral electrical field at the
interface of electrode and material, the movement of charges take place towards
the grain boundaries.
Hence, the ions diffuse with respect to the direction of applied field, which
result in the assemblage of ions near the electrode as shown in Fig. 1.9. Thus the
polarization occurs, which is known as space charge polarization (or) interfacial
polarization.
Normally, this type of polarization occurs in ferrites and semiconductors and
will be very small.

1.9 TOTAL ELECTRIC POLARIZATION

The total electric polarization is the sum of electronic polarisation, ionic
polarization, orientation polarization and space charge polarization. Since space
charge polarization is very small when compared to other kinds of polarization it
can be neglected. Therefore the total polarizability is given by
a=,+, +Oo
=4neo R³4/l +
M 3KBT
 Physics for Eleetrical
Engineering
P=NEa
We know total polarization
N

as Langevin Debye equation.

This cquation is callcd
MEASUREMENT OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
1.10
We know total polarization
polarization + Ionic polarization +Orientation polarization
P= Elcctronic

i.e., P=Na,E +Na,E+NoE

(or) P=NE
Let a'a,+0
..(1)

We know
..(2)
P.

Equating equation (1) and (2) we get

, (e, -I) =Na'+3K_T

(or)

(or)
Dielectric Materials and Insulation

1.11 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS TYPES OF POLARIZATION

MECHANISMS
S.NO Factor Electronic fonic Orientatton Space charge
polarizatton polarlzation polartzation polarization

1. Definition Electron cloudsCations and Alignment oflon diffusion 1

are shifted with| anions are shifted|random takes place
respect to molecules takes
nucleus
place
2
Examples Inert gases lonic crystals Alcohol,
methane, CH;CI

3. Temperature Independent of Independent of|Dependent of Dependent of

|dependent temperature temperature temperature. temperature.
When the When the
temperature istemperature
increased, the increased, the
polarization polarization also
decreases. increases.

4. Relaxation time very fast slow slower slowest

5. Power loss low high higher |highest

6 Frequency Frequencies Frequencies Frequencies |Frequencies about
range upto 10 Hz and about 104 Hz about 102 Hz 10 Hz
above.

1.12 FREQUENCY AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS OF

ALL THE POLARIZATION MECHANISMS

When field is applied, the polarization occurs as a function of time. The

polarization P() as a function of time t is given by

P()=P[1- )
where P is the maximum polarization which occurs at a static field applied for a
long time and , is the relaxation time. i.e., the time taken for polarization. It is
a measure of the time scale of a polarization process.
 Physics for
lectical Engneerng
polarization process to
Relaxation time is the time taken for the reach 0.63
U
of the maximum value of polarization.
N The relaxation times are different for different kinds of polarization

mechanisms.

1 (a) Frequency Effects

Polarization is very Veryrapid and will complete al the
) Electronic reason is that the
electrons are very Very light
applied the
instant the voltage is Therefore even for very high frequency applied
ions.
elementary particles than Hz) as shown in Fig.
1.10, this kind of
(* 10
voltage i.e., in the optical range of the applied voltage.
polarization occurs during every cycle

P Spacechargepoloarization

Polarization
Orientation polarization

Aonicpolarization
Electronic polarization

Electric Adio Radio nfrared Optical

power
Frequency-

Fig. 1.10

electronic polarization.
(i) lonic polarization is slightly slower than thefrequency of the applied
Because ions are heavier than the electron cloud. Also the
frequency of
clectric field with which the ions will be displaced is equal to the
the lattice vibrations (- 10 Hz).
At optical frequencies, there is no ionic polarization. If the frequency of the
applied voltage is less than 10 Hz i., infrared range as shown in Fig. 1.10 the
ions have enough time to respond during each cycle of the applicd field.
Diclectric Materials and Insulatien

() Orientation Polarization is even slower than ionic polarization. The

relaxation time for this case varies with respect to the dielectric materials (i.e.,
solids or liquids) used.

Here the polar molecules in a liquid easily reorient themselves compared t

solids. This type of polarization occurs at audio and radio frequency ranges.
( 10° Hz) as shown in Fig. 1.I0. 1

(iv) Space charge polarization is the slowest process, because in this case
the ions have to diffuse (jump) over several interatomic distances. Also this process
Occurs at very low frequency in the order of 10 Hz as shown in Fig. 110.

Therefore from the Fig. 1.10 we can observe that, at lower frequencies all
the four types of polarizations occur and the total polarization is maximum. And
the total polarization value decreases with the increase in frequency and becomes
minimum at optical frequency range.

(b) Temperature Effects

The electronic and ionic polarizations are independent of temperature,

whereas the orientation and space charge polarizations are temperature dependent.

The orientation polarization decreases with the increase in temperature

because the randomizing action of thermal energy decreases the tendency of the
permanent dipoles to align along the field direction. Hence in this case the e,
decreases.

But in space charge polarization, when the temperature is increased, the ions
can easily overcome the activation barrier and hence they diffuse through the inter
atomic distances. Thus it gives rise to polarization. So in this case the e, will
increase with the increase in temperature.
 Plkysics for Electrical
Engine ring
FIELD AND
(OR) LOCAL
INTERNAL FIELD RELATION
1,13 CLAUSTUS - MOSOT1I
exerts a dipole
in an external tield it moment
kept
a dielectric malerial is
When viz,
Therefore two fields are exerted,
in it.
external field
() Due to
1 moment.
(ü) Due todipole due to the dipoles are
forces which is created
coulomb responsible for polarising the
This long range of local field, This field is
called as internal field or
individual atoms or molecules.

Method for Finding Internal Field

Lorentz external electric field. Consider
material kept in an
dielectric
Let us assume a dielectric of radius 'r.
in the solid
an imaginary sphere i.
sphere is greater than the radius of the atoms
Here the radius of the small elemental ring is cut
dËpoles within the sphere. A
there are many atomic
the radius of the small ring as shown in Fig. 1.11.
with thickness ds. Let y be

dielectric

Field direction

Fig. 1.11
Dieleetric Materials and Insulation

The electric field at the centre of the sphere is called internal

arises due to following four factors. field, which

Ein=E +E+E,+E ...(1)

where,

E, ’ Field due to the charge on the plates. (externally applied)

E,’ Field due to polarization charges on the plane surface of the dielectric.
E’ Field due to polarized charges induced at the spherical surface.
E’ Field due to atomic dipoles inside the sphere considered.
Macroscopically, we can take E=Ej +E. (i.e.) The field externally applied
(E1) and the field induced on the plane surface of the dielectric (E|) as a
field (E).
single

If the dielectric is highly symmetric then the dipoles will cancel with
each
other therefore we can take E4=0
:. Equation (1) becomes,

EmE+E ...(2)
To find E
In the elemental ring, let 'g' be the charge on the area ds. Polarization is
defined as the surface charges per unit area. If PN is the component of polarization
perpendicular to the area as shown in Fig. 1.12.
Here Py=P cos =qlds
c<e
(or) =Pcos ds

Fig. 1.12
.. Electric field intensity at 'c due to charge is given by

E=4

Pcos ds
..(3)
 Pysies for Electrical
1.20
Engine ring
r. Resolving the intensity into two
radius
above intensity is alongthe
The Fig. 1.l3.
Components, as shown in
field direction Ex=Ecos0
the
Componentparallelto Pcos ds

direction
perpendicular to thefield
Component
E,=Esin
Fig. 1.13
Pcos0 sin 0 ds
:.Ey=
directions (Fie. 1.13) and
components are in opposite taken i
The perpendicular parallel components are alone
other. So the
hence cancel each
consideration.
the ring is considered as dA then
area of
If the total surface
Pcos 0dA ..4)
E,=E=
thickness
where dA = circumference x

dA =2y XdS
can write
Since y=rsin and dS =rd0, we
dA= 2rr sin 0 Xrd0
..(5)
(or) dA =2ru sin dO
Substituting equation (5) in equation(4), we get
Pcos sin e ..(6)
Electric field intensity due to the elemental ring = 220

.:. Electrical field intensity due to the whole sphere can be derived by
integrating equation (6) within the limits 0 to I.

Pcos0 sin d
2¬
 cos 9sin 9d8=
P
E3= ..T)
3 ¬0

Substituting equation (7) in equation (2) we can write

...8)
380
where E is called internal field or Lorentz field.
LAUSTUS MOSOTTI RELATION
We know D=[E= E+P (or) E(e-E0) =P
P
E= ..9)

Substitutingequation (9) in equation (8), we get

P
P
3 Eo
P(3e+(e-&)]
3¬, (e-0
P(22,+e) ...(10)
3¬, (e-)
We know polarization P=Na E;
P ..(11)
Na.

Comparingequations (10) and equation (11) we get,

PP(2g+e)
=

Na 3e, (e-E)
Na.
3¬0 280 +E
L22 Physies fur Blectrical Engineeriny

Na (et,-1)
3e o (eo +2)
Na t 1
...(12)

Ihe above equation is called Causius-Mossotti Relation.

Note: k there is a compound consisting of ditferent vpes
molecules oO atoms, then we can wnte

his equation is suitable for iquids and gases also.

Measurement of dipole moment

The dipole moment of the moleculecan be found using the Clausius-Mosoti
relation by multiplying equation (12) by the molar volume (MWP)
:. Molar polarisation Pm= ..(13)

We know Avagadro's Number N = NMA

.:. Equation (13) can be written as

P,,= N, .(14)

We know a=a'+
3KaT and +; a '

:. P,
Naa'+ 3KT
N, N
3e, 9e, K,T
Dielectrie Materials and Insulation 1,23

e,-1
(or) N e , +2 ..(15)
9e, K¡ (V)

A graph is drawn between e,-1 and 1/T, as shown in Fig. 1.14.

e,+2

. From Fig. 1.14, slope =dt N

9E, Kg
(or)
N dx
3e
VT

(or) =34/5 Fig. 1.14

Thus the dipole moment of the molecule can be measured by finding the
slope. In any case if the dipole moment is zero, i.e., if p=0, the graph will become
astraight line parallel to x axis, which implies that the polarization is independent
of temperature.

1.14 DIELECTRIC LOSS

If adielectric is subjected to an electric field, the electrical energy is
absorbed by the dielectric and certain quantity of electrical energy is dissipated
in the form of heat energy. This is known as dielectric loss.
The dielectric loss can occur both in direct and alternating voltages. The
dielectric loss is less in direct voltage than that of alternating voltages.

Loss in Purified Gas

If an alternating voltage is applied across the
capacitor having vacuum (or) purified gas then the
resulting current leads the applied voltage by 90°, as
shown in Fig. 1.15. If P leads "V exactly by 90°,
We can say that no electrical energy is lost. 90°

Fig. 1.15
 Physies for Electricat
124 Engine ring
Explanation VIcos
know power loss PL=
We
when =90°; PL=0
dielectric
Loss in Comnercial
whena practical dielectric ispresent the
Now, 5), then it showS
by (90
CUrrent leads the voltage electric energy and ðis
that there is some
loss in
Fig. 1.16.
called loss angle, as shown in
Fig. 1.16
Explanation
P=V cos6
In this case the power loss
cos(90- 0)
Since =90- 6, we have PL= VI
P,= VIsin8 ..1)
We know V=IR

then we can Write,

If the capacitive reactance is X¢
..2)

Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get,

Power loss PL= sin SX¢ ..3)
1
We know frequency f= 2Tt RC
1
2reX, C

.:. X= ..(4)
2rfC
Substituting equation (4) in equation (3), we ge
P,=2rfC sin &
If Ois very small, then sin &=tan