Chapter-02 Control and Coordination ….

Notes
Living organisms—whether humans, animals, or plants—are constantly interacting with their environment. They need
to respond to changes around them and regulate internal body functions. This is why control and coordination
are essential.
Here’s Why Control and Coordination Are Required:
1️⃣ To Respond to Stimuli (Changes in Environment)
 Organisms must detect and react to external changes (like light, temperature, sound, or danger).
 Example: You quickly move your hand away from a hot object. This is reflex action—part of your body's
control system.
2️⃣ To Maintain Internal Stability (Homeostasis)
 Body processes like temperature, blood sugar, and water levels need to stay balanced.
 Hormones and the brain work together to regulate internal conditions.
3️⃣ To Perform Complex Functions Smoothly
 Activities like walking, eating, breathing, and thinking involve many body parts working together.
 Your brain coordinates these actions by sending signals through nerves or hormones.

Control and Cordination In Animals

This function is performed by:
 Nervous system (quick response)
 Endocrine system (hormonal control, slow and long-lasting)

NERVOUS SYSTEM: NEURON

Neuron is the structural and functional unit of nerve system.

🔹 Parts of Neuron:
 Dendrites – receive messages
 Cell body (cyton) – contains nucleus and Nissle’s granule
 Axon – long fiber that carries message away
 Axon terminal – passes message to next neuron or muscle
🔸 Function: Transmits electrical impulses in the body.
(Nerve impulse : - It is an electro-chemical information (signal) passing though neuron.)

SYNAPSE: A synapse is a tiny gap or junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the
dendrite or cell body of the next neuron (or muscle/gland cell).
It's the place where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.
Structure of a Synapse: A synapse has 3 main parts:
1. Presynaptic neuron – the neuron that sends the signal.
2. Synaptic cleft – the gap between two neurons.
3. Postsynaptic neuron – the neuron that receives the signal.

NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION:
The neuromuscular junction is a special type of synapse where a motor neuron connects with a muscle fibre to
control its contraction.
How Neuromuscular Junction Works (Step-by-step)
1. Nerve impulse travels down the motor neuron to the axon terminal.
2. This causes the release of the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
3. This generates an electrical signal (action potential) in the muscle fibre .
4. The signal spreads across the muscle, leading to muscle contraction.

NEUROTRANSMITTER:
A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that transmits signals from one neuron to another across a
synapse, or from a neuron to a muscle or gland.
� It helps in passing the nerve impulse when the electrical signal cannot cross the synapse directly.

🔁Where are Neurotransmitters Found?

 Stored in tiny sacs called vesicles in the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron.
 Released into the synaptic cleft when an impulse arrives.
EX. 1.Acetylcholine : Muscle contraction
2. Dopamine :Feeling of pleasure, attention, motor control
3.Serotonin Mood control, sleep, appetite

How Do Neurotransmitters Work?

1. An electrical impulse (nerve signal) reaches the axon terminal of the neuron.
2. This causes vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
3. The neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the next neuron or muscle cell.
4. This creates a new electrical impulse in the next cell.
5. Any extra neurotransmitter is broken down or reabsorbed.

NERVOUS SYSTEM :
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
✅ Definition: The CNS is the main control center of the body. It processes all the messages from the body and
sends back appropriate responses.
It includes: 1.Brain 2.Spinal Cord

A. The Brain:
The brain is the main coordinating center of the body. It is a part of the central nervous system (CNS) and works like
a central processing unit (CPU), controlling voluntary and involuntary actions.

️ Protection of Brain:
1. Cranium (Skull): Bony outer covering.
2. Meninges: Three protective membranes covering the brain.
3. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Cushions the brain, prevents shock and injury.

️ Main Parts of the Brain:

1. Forebrain (largest part)
 Components: Cerebrum, olfactory lobes
 Functions:
o Cerebrum: Controls voluntary actions like thinking, memory, learning, emotions.
o Olfactory lobes: Sense of smell.
 Has sensory areas (receive information), motor areas (send commands), and association areas (interpret
information).
2. Midbrain
 Located between forebrain and hindbrain.
 Controls reflex movements of the head, neck, and eyes in response to light and sound.
 Connects spinal cord with the brain.
3. Hindbrain
o Cerebellum: Maintains posture, balance, and coordination of body movements.
o Pons: Helps in regulating breathing.
o Medulla Oblongata: Controls involuntary actions like heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure,
vomiting, coughing
o
� B. Spinal Cord
 A long, cylindrical structure that extends from the brainstem (medulla) down the vertebral column.
 Protected by vertebrae.
 Transmits messages between brain and body.
 Also controls reflex actions via the reflex arc.

� 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

✅ Definition:The PNS includes all the nerves that arise from the brain and spinal cord and connect them to
various body parts like limbs, skin, internal organs, etc.

🔗 Components of PNS:
Type of Nerve Origin Function
Cranial nerves From brain (12 pairs) Connect brain to head, face, eyes, ears, etc.
Spinal nerves From spinal cord (31 pairs) Connect spinal cord to rest of body

🔀 Types of Nerves in PNS:

1. Sensory Nerves
o Carry messages from sense organs to CNS
o Example: Eye to brain (vision)
2. Motor Nerves
o Carry messages from CNS to muscles/glands
o Example: Brain to hand muscles (to move)
3. Mixed Nerves
o Carry both sensory and motor fibers
⚙️ Sub-Division of PNS:
🔹 A. Somatic Nervous System
 Controls voluntary actions like movement of arms, legs, writing, etc.
 Connects CNS to skeletal muscles.
🔹 B. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
 Controls involuntary actions (automatic functions)
 Examples: Heartbeat, digestion, pupil dilation.

� Autonomic Nervous System is further divided into:
Division Function
Sympathetic Prepares body for emergency (“fight or flight”) – increases heartbeat, dilates pupils
Parasympathetic Calms the body (“rest and digest”) – slows heart rate, stimulates digestion

📝 Key Differences Between CNS and PNS

Feature CNS PNS
Main Parts Brain and spinal cord Cranial and spinal nerves
Protection Enclosed in skull and vertebrae Not enclosed; spreads throughout body
Function Decision-making, processing Communication between CNS and body
Type of actions Both voluntary & involuntary Voluntary & involuntary via ANS

REFLEX ACTION:
A reflex action is a sudden, automatic, and involuntary response to a stimulus that does not involve the
brain immediately.
✅ Example: Pulling your hand back immediately after touching something hot.
 Blinking of eyes when a bright light is flashed
 Sneezing when dust enters the nose
 Coughing when something irritates the throat

🎯 Key Characteristics:
 Quick and automatic
 Protective in nature
 No conscious thought involved
 Usually controlled by the spinal cord, not the brain\
️ Stimulus and Response:
 Stimulus: A change in the environment that triggers a response (e.g., heat).
 Response: The action taken as a result of the stimulus (e.g., withdrawing the hand).

🔄 Reflex Arc – The Pathway:

The route taken by nerve impulses during a reflex action is called a reflex arc.
🔁 Components of Reflex Arc:
1. Receptor – Senses the stimulus (e.g., skin).
2. Sensory neuron – Carries impulse from receptor to spinal cord.
3. Interneuron (Relay neuron) – In spinal cord; processes the signal.
4. Motor neuron – Carries impulse from spinal cord to muscle.
5. Effector (Muscle/Gland) – Performs the action (e.g., pulls hand back).

️ Important Note:
Though the spinal cord handles the reflex action, the brain is informed after the action is performed.