DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY

FREE VIBRATIONS
Introduction
• When elastic bodies such as a spring, a beam and a shaft are displaced
from the equilibrium position by the application of external forces, and
then released, they execute a vibratory motion (To and Fro Motion).
• This is due to the reason that, when a body is displaced, the internal forces
in the form of elastic or strain energy are present in the body. At release,
these forces bring the body to its original position.
• When the body reaches the equilibrium position, the whole of the elastic
or strain energy is converted into kinetic energy due to which the body
continues to move in the opposite direction.
• The whole of the kinetic energy is again converted into strain energy due
to which the body again returns to the equilibrium position.
• In this way, the vibratory motion is repeated indefinitely.
simple pendulum
• A simple pendulum consists of a mass hanging from a
string of certain length and fixed at a pivot point.
• When displaced to an initial angle and released, the
pendulum will swing back and forth with periodic
motion.
• In the mean position where the centre of mass is at
the lowest position it has kinetic energy only.
• At the extreme positions (Left/right) it has only
potential energy (where all the kinetic energy is
converted to potential energy)
• In the absence of friction the motion continuous
indefinitely
• If the pendulum swings are small on either side, it
approximates to simple harmonic motion.
Definitions
• Periodic motion. It is a motion which repeats itself after equal
intervals of time.
• Period of vibration or time period. It is the time interval after which
the motion is repeated itself. The period of vibration is usually
expressed in seconds. It is the time taken to complete one cycle.
• Cycle. It is the motion completed during one time period.
• Frequency. It is the number of cycles described in one second. In
S.I. units, the frequency is expressed in hertz (briefly written as Hz)
which is equal to one cycle per second.
• Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from
the equilibrium position.
• Natural frequency: It is the frequency of free vibrations of a body
vibrating of its own without the help of an external agency.
Definitions
• Fundamental (or Principal) modes of vibration: It is the mode of
vibration having the lowest natural frequency.
• Degrees of freedom: The minimum number of independent
coordinates required to specify the motion of a system.
• Damping: It is the resistance to the motion of a vibrating body.
• Phase difference: It is the angle by which one vibrating system is
ahead or behind the other vibrating system.
• Resonance: When the frequency of external excitation is equal to
the natural frequency of a vibrating body.
• Mechanical system: A system consisting of a mass, spring and a
damper.
• Discrete (or lumped) system: A system with finite number of
degrees of freedom.
 Types of Vibratory Motion
Free or natural vibrations. When no external force acts on the body, after giving it
an initial displacement, then the body is said to be under free or natural
vibrations. The frequency of the free vibrations is called free or natural frequency.
Forced vibrations. When the body vibrates under the influence of external force,
then the body is said to be under forced vibrations. The external force applied to
the body is a periodic disturbing force created by unbalance. The vibrations have
the same frequency as the applied force.
Note : When the frequency of the external force is same as that of the natural
vibrations, resonance takes place.
Damped vibrations. When there is a reduction in amplitude over every cycle of
vibration, the motion is said to be damped vibration. This is due to the fact that a
certain amount of energy possessed by the vibrating system is always dissipated
in overcoming frictional resistances to the motion.
 TYPES OF FREE VIBRATIONS
The three types: 1. Longitudinal vibrations, 2. Transverse vibrations, and
3. Torsional vibrations.
 TYPES OF FREE VIBRATIONS
1. Longitudinal vibrations
If the shaft is stretched and compressed so that all particles of the disc
vibrate along straight paths parallel to the axis of the shaft.
It is subjected alternately to tensile and compressive stresses.
2. Transverse vibrations
If all particles of the disc vibrate nearly along straight paths
approximately perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. so that the shaft is
bent and bending stresses are induced in the shaft.
3. Torsional vibrations
All particles of the disc vibrate along circular arcs whose centres lie on
the axis of the shaft as shown in Fig.(c). The shaft is twisted and
untwisted alternately so that torsional shear stresses are induced.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF VIBRATING SYSTEM
The basic elements of an idealized mathematical
model for vibrating system are:
1. Inertial elements: These are represented by
lumped masses (m) for rectilinear motion and
lumped moment of inertia (I or J) for angular
motion.
2. Restoring elements: These elements are
represented by massless linear (k) or torsional
(kt) springs for rectilinear and torsional motions
respectively.
3. Damping elements: These are represented by
massless dampers for energy dissipation. The
vibration elements are shown in Fig. They are
represented by c for rectilinear motion and ct for
torsional motion.
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
The number of independent coordinates
required to describe the motion of a vibratory
system is known as its degrees of freedom.
A spring-mass system ((a)) or a simple
pendulum oscillating in a plane ((b)) are the
examples of single degree of freedom systems.
A two springs-two mass system ((c)) and a
double pendulum ((d)) represent two degree of
freedom systems.
A continuous system in the form of a vibrating
beam held between two supports ((e))
represent an infinite number of degrees.
Free Longitudinal Vibrations
The solution of longitudinal vibrations may be obtained by the following
methods.
m = Mass of the body suspended from the constraint in kg,
1. Equilibrium method k= stiffness of the spring
2. D’Alembert’s principle
3. Energy method
Free body diagram
4. Rayleigh’s method.
Free Longitudinal Vibrations
Equilibrium method
Consider the spring-mass system shown in Fig.(a). The forces acting on the
mass m are shown in Fig.(b). For the equilibrium of the mass m, we have
Inertia (or disturbing) force on the mass = Restoring force due to the spring
Disturbing force = mass x acceln. = m 𝑥ሷ
Restoring force = spring stiffness x dist. = -kx
(-ve sign indicates that the restoring force is
opposite to the disturbing force)
Now
m 𝑥 ̈ = -kx
m 𝑥 ̈ + kx = 0 equation of motion of the vibrating system
𝑥 ̈ + (k/m) x = 0
The fundamental equation of simple harmonic
motion is 𝑥 ̈ + (ω2) x = 0 comparing ω2= k/m
The natural frequency of spring–mass system =
Free Longitudinal Vibrations
D’Alembert’s principle
This principle states that a dynamic system may be converted into an
equivalent static system by adding the inertia force, taken in the reverse
direction to the restoring force.
To apply the D’Alembert’s principle to the spring-mass system shown in
Fig.(a), the direction of the inertia force
on mass m in Fig.(b) has to be reversed
from downwards to upwards.
Then, we have
Inertia force + restoring force = 0 Inertia
m 𝑥 ̈ + kx = 0 equation of motion Force
direction
𝑥 ̈ + (k/m) x = 0
The fundamental equation of simple harmonic
motion is 𝑥 ̈ + (ω2) x = 0 comparing ω2= k/m
The natural frequency of spring–mass system =
Energy method
The energy method makes use of the principle of conservation of energy.
According to this principle, the sum of kinetic energy T and potential
energy U remains constant throughout the motion of a vibrating system.
T + U = constant
d/dt(T + U ) = 0
 Rayleigh’s method
The Rayleigh’s method makes use of the fact that the maximum kinetic energy in
a vibrating system is equal to the maximum potential energy. For the spring-mass
system, the maximum kinetic energy occurs at the mean position and maximum
potential energy occurs at the outermost position of oscillations.
 Single Degree of Freedom System
Consider the single degree of freedom system in the form of a spring-mass
shown in Fig. Before the mass is hung on the spring, the spring in its
unstretched position is shown in Fig.(a). When the mass m is hung on the
spring, the spring is stretched by an amount δst = static deflection, from
position A-A to B-B, as shown in Fig.(b).
For the static equilibrium of the system,
we have, k δst = mg
Now the mass m is displaced downwards
by an amount x from position B-B to C-C,
as shown in Fig.(c).
Now the forces acting on the system are,
applying D’Alembert’s principle, we have
Single Degree of Freedom System
kδst kx

mg m𝑥ሷ

Substituting k δst = mg
And cancelling out mg on doth the sides
Therefore, to write the equation of motion, the forces acting on the vibrating system during static equilibrium
position may be ignored.
Single Degree of Freedom System

k δst = mg

k/m = g/δst

The mass of the spring can be accounted for by

adding one-third of its mass to the main mass to
calculate the natural frequency.
Equivalent Stiffness of Springs
Springs in series
Consider two springs in series, as shown in Fig. of stiffness k1
and k2. Let x1 and x2 be the extensions of the springs under
the force F. Both springs are subjected to the same force,
Thus
Equivalent Stiffness of Springs
Springs in parallel
Consider two springs in parallel, as shown in Fig. of stiffness
k1 and k2. the deflection of both springs is same but with
different forces.
Natural Frequency of Free Transverse
Vibrations
Consider a shaft of negligible mass, whose one end is fixed and the other end
carries a body of weight W, as shown in Fig.
Let s = Stiffness of shaft,
δ = Static deflection due to weight of the body,
x = Displacement of body from mean position after time t.
m = Mass of body = W/g
Natural Frequency of Free Transverse
Vibrations

static deflection of a cantilever beam loaded at the free end is

Effect of shaft mass on Natural Frequency
of Free Transverse Vibrations
the mass of the shaft constraint mC and the mass of the disc m at the free end is
given, then natural frequency of vibration for cantilever beam