66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.

3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 1

1.3 Geometry

a) Simple geometrical constructions; [Level 1]

b) Graphical representation; nature and uses of graphs,

graphs of equations/functions;

c) Simple trigonometry; trigonometrical relationships, use

of tables and rectangular and polar co-ordinates.

Lesson Plan
Module 1- Mathematics
1. Geometrical notions and rules;
1.3 Geometry 2. Simple constructions;
3. Charts and graphs;
4. Graphs of equations and functions;
5. Angle functions;
6. Coordinate Systems.
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 2

T r ia n g le s

 E q u ila t e r a l t r ia n g le

 O b t u s e t r ia n g le

 A c u t e t r ia n g le

 I s o s c e le s t r ia n g le

 R ig h t t r ia n g le

 S c a le n e t r ia n g le

R e g u la r P o ly g o n s Q u a d r ila te r a ls

 3 s id e s T r ia n g le  A t r a p e z o id is a
q u a d r ila t e r a l w it h o n e p a ir
 4 s id e s S q u are o f p a r a lle l s id e s .

 5 s id e s P en ta g o n  A p a r a lle lo g r a m is a
q u a d r ila t e r a l w it h p a r a lle l
 6 s id e s H exagon o p p o s it e s id e s .

 8 s id e s O cta g o n  A r e c t a n g le is a
p a r a lle lo g r a m w it h r ig h t
T r ia n g le in t e r io r a n g le s .
S qu are
P e n ta g o n
 A r h o m b u s is a
H exagon
p a r a lle lo g r a m w it h e q u a l
O c ta g o n
a d j a c e n t s id e s .

H e x a g o n - h e a d e d b o lt
 A s q u a r e is a r e c t a n g le w it h
e q u a l a d j a c e n t s id e s .
 66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 3

Definitions
The following terms are essential to the understanding of the Broken line. A line consisting of a number of different straight
application of geometrical principles. lines.

Point. A point has no length, breadth, or thickness but has only Parallel lines. Lines in the same plane which can never intersect
position. no matter how far they are extended.

Line. A line has no breadth or thickness but has length. Angle. An angle is the opening between two straight lines drawn
in different directions from the same point.
Surface. A surface has no thickness but has length and breadth.
Acute angle. An angle which is less than a right angle.
Plane, or plane surface. A plane, or plane surface, may be
defined in several ways, as follows: Right angle. An angle which is one-fourth of a circle, that is,
1. A surface such that a straight line that joins any two of its 900.
points lies wholly in that surface;
2. A two-dimensional extent of zero curvature; Obtuse angle. An angle of more than 900.
3. A surface any intersection of which by a like surface is a
straight line. Straight angle. An angle whose sides form a straight line, that is,
an angle of 1800.
Solid. A solid, in the geometric sense, has three dimensions, that
is, length, breadth, and thickness. Bisector. A bisector is a point, line, or surface which divides an
angle into two equal parts.
The following terms describe different types of lines:
Vertex of an angle. The common point from which the two
Straight line. A line having the same direction throughout its sides of an angle proceed.
length. If a portion of a straight line is placed so that both ends
fall within the ends of the other part, the portion must lie wholly Adjacent angles. Two angles having a common side and the
within the line. same vertex.

Equal lines. Two lines are equal if when placed one upon the Vertical angles. Two angles with the same vertex and with sides
other, their ends can be made to coincide. that are prolongations of the sides of each other.

Curved line. A line which continuously changes direction. Perpendicular line. A straight line which makes a 900 angle
with another straight line.
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 4

C ir c le s A n g le p r o p e r tie s
A d j a c e n t a n g le s o n a
T angent P
 C en ter O s t r a ig h t lin e = 1 8 0 º

 R a d iu s O A , O B b
a
I f t w o s t r a ig h t lin e s
 C hord A B
in t e r s e c t , v e r t ic a lly a + b = 180º
o p p o s it e a n g le s a r e e q u a l
 A n g le s u b t e n d e d a t
O c en ter A O B
b c
 I n s c r ib e d a n g le A P B
a b a
S ecan t A B d
 T a n g e n t a t p o in t P
a = b A n g le s a t a p o in t = 3 6 0 º
 S ec a n t th ro u g h A B
a + b + c + d = 360º

A n g le p r o p e r tie s A n g le s o f c o n v e x p o ly g o n
A d j a c e n t a n g le s o n a
 T h e s u m o f in t e r io r  T h e s u m o f e x t e r io r
s t r a ig h t lin e = 1 8 0 º
a n g le s o f a p o ly g o n w it h a n g le s o f a c o n v e x p o ly g o n
n s id e s is ( n – 2 ) · 1 8 0 0 w it h n s id e is 3 6 0 0
a b
I f t w o s t r a ig h t lin e s
in t e r s e c t , v e r t ic a lly a + b = 180º
o p p o s it e a n g le s a r e e q u a l
a
e t
b c b p
a b a
d c d q s
r
a = b A n g le s a t a p o in t = 3 6 0 º
a + b + c + … = (n – 2 ) · 1 8 0 0 p + q + r +… = 3600
a + b + c + d = 360º
 66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 5

Shapes
The radius of the circle is a straight line from the center of the
Polygons. A polygon is a plane, closed figure bounded by circle to the circle perimeter. The radius is equal to one-half the
straight lines joined end to end. Polygons may have any number diameter. The circumference of a circle is the length of the
of sides from three upward. A regular polygon has all sides and perimeter.
angles equal.
An arc is any portion of the circle. A major arc is one of more
Triangles. A triangle is a plane bounded by three sides, or a than 1800, while a minor arc is less than 1800.
three-sided polygon with a total included angle of 1800.
The side opposite the 900 angle in a right triangle is called the A semicircle is an arc of 1800. A sector is the area within a
hypotenuse. The Pythagorean theorem states that in a right circle bounded by two radii and the arc connecting the two radii.
triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides. This can be written algebraically A quadrant is a sector with an arc of 900. A chord is any
as a2 + b2 = c2. With this theorem, if we know the length of two straight line connecting two points on a circle. A secant is a
sides of a right triangle, we can easily calculate the third. straight line which intersects a circle. A tangent is a straight line
of unlimited length which only has one point in common with a
A quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon with the sum of the circle. An inscribed angle in a circle is an angle whose vertex is
included angles equal to 3600. A regular quadrilateral with all on the circle. A central angle is an angle whose vertex is at the
sides of equal length and with equal angles is a square. A center of the angle.
rectangle has four angles of 900 and two pairs of parallel sides.
One pair is longer than the other. The following rules apply to shapes in the plane.

A parallelogram is a four-sided figure whose opposite sides are a. Adjacent angles on a straight line [= 180];
equal and parallel. This definition would also include any b. Vertically opposite angles [are equal];
rectangle. In common practice, however, a parallelogram does c. Angles at a point [= 360]
not have any right angles. A trapezoid is a four-sided plane that d. Corresponding angles, parallel lines;
has two parallel sides and two that are not parallel. e. Alternate angles, parallel lines;
f. Angle sum of triangle [=180];
Circles. A circle is a closed curve, all portions of which are in g. Angle sum of polygon.
the same plane and equidistant from the same point

The diameter of the circle is the length of a straight line passing

through the center of a circle and limited at each end by the
circle.
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 6

C o n g r u e n t tr ia n g le s C o n s tr u c tio n 2 : D r a w a p e r p e n d ic u la r
A X

B C Y Z

C o n d it io n ( S S S ) : 3 e q u a l s id e s
X A
A B

Y Z B C

C o n d it io n ( S A S ) : 2 e q u a l s id e s C o n d it io n ( A S A ) : 2 e q u a l a n g le s
a n d 1 in c lu d e d a n g le . a n d 1 s id e . C

C o n s tr u c tio n 1 : B is e c t a g iv e n lin e C o n s tr u c tio n 3 : B is e c t a n a n g le

C F

C
A B
G M D

K O

E H
 66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 7

Geometric Constructions

During the maintenance of an aircraft, it is often necessary to

layout or transfer geometric shapes to new material. It is possible
with a compass, a ruler, and a protractor to construct many
geometrical figures which accurately fill their definitions or
descriptions.

1. Bisect a straight line. Adjust the compass so that it spans a

greater distance than one-half the length of the line. Place the
point on A and strike an arc CDE as shown. Using B as a center,
strike an arc FGH. Connect the points J and K with a straight
line. The line JK bisects the line AB.

2. Draw a perpendicular from a point to a line. From the

point P use the compass to strike arcs at A and B, using the same
radius in each case. Then from points A and B strike intersecting
arcs at C. Connect the points P and C with a straight line. The
line PC is perpendicular to AB.

3. Bisect an angle. Given the angle AOB, place the point of a

compass at O and strike arcs at A and B so that OA=OB. From
points A and B strike intersecting arcs at C using equal radii.
Draw the line OC. OC is then the bisector of the angle.
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 8

C o n s tr u c tio n 5 : D iv id e a lin e s e g m e n t in to
C o n s tr u c tio n 4 : D u p lic a te a n a n g le
s e v e r a l e q u a l p a r ts
B y c o n s t r u c t io n , x 1 = x 2 = x 3 = x 4 = x 5
F o r s im ila r t r ia n g le s , y 1 = y 2 = y 3 = y 4 = y 5

x5
A C C
x4
x3
x2
x1

O O’
B D A B

y1 y2 y3 y4 y5

C o n s tr u c tio n 6 : C o n s tr u c t th e ta n g e n t to a
C o n s tr u c tio n 4 b : D u p lic a te a tr ia n g le c ir c le fr o m a n e x te r n a l p o in t

P
C F

 = 1/2  
= 1/2 . 180° C
= 90° O T

A D
B E P T is t h e ta n g e n t t o
t h e g iv e n c ir c le a t p o in t P .
 66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 9

Geometric Constructions…

4. Duplicate a given angle. Given the angle AOB, draw the line
OD. Strike an arc AB such that OA=OB. Draw the arc CD using
the radius OA. Using the distance AB as a radius, strike an
arc at C with D as a center. Draw the line OC. The angle COD is
equal to angle AOB.

5. Duplicate a given triangle. Given the triangle ABC, draw a

horizontal line DX. Using AB as a radius and D as the center,
draw an arc cutting DX at E. Using AC as a radius and D as a
center, draw an arc in the vicinity of F. Using CB as a radius and
E as a center, draw an arc to intersect the other arc at F. Draw
the lines DF and EF. DEF is the duplicate of triangle ABC.

***
Problem for discussion- Construct the tangent from an external
point T to a given circle.

Given the center O of the circle, draw a line OT. Construct a

circle on diameter OT. Let P, Q be the points where the two
circles intersect. TP and TQ are the tangents required.
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 10

C h a r ts a n d G r a p h s C h a r ts : B r o k e n lin e
100
 T h e g r a p h u s u a lly s h o w s t h e c h a n g e s in t h e v a lu e o f o n e 95
90
o r m o r e v a r ia b le s a s a n o t h e r v a r ia b le c h a n g e s . 85
80
75

U n its C o m p le te d
C h a r ts G rap h s 70
65
60
 B r o k e n - lin e g r a p h  C o n t in u o u s - lin e 55
50
45
 B ar grap h
y 40
35
 C ir c u la r ( p ie ) 30
25
20
 C o n t in u o u s - lin e 15
10
5
x
J F M A M J J A S O N D

C h a r ts C h a r ts : B a r s
100
95
 C o lu m n C h a r t 90
85
80
 B ar C h art 75

U n its C o m p le te d
70
65
 P ie C h a r t 60
55
50
 X Y S ca tte r 45
40
35
 L in e C h a r t 30
25
20
 A rea C h art 15
10
5
J F M A M J J A S O N D
 66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 11

C h a r ts : P ie s G r a p h s : S h o w in g r e la tio n s h ip
P r o fit 4 %
Lease 2 %
400
Tax
360 F r o n t s e a ts 2 R e a r s e a ts 2
12%
320
U tility 280
2% W ages & 240 F u e l- G a l

W e ig h t
s a la r ie s 200
S u p p lie s 50% 160
B a g g a g e -Lb s
30% 120
80
40
4 8 12 16 18 20 24 26 28 30
0
In dex

Charts and Graphs Graphs – Graphs are charts which provide numerical or
mathematical information in graphical form, that is lines, scales,
Charts – Charts are visual tools that are used to present and to bars, sectors and so forth. The graph usually shows the changes
aid in the use of mathematical data. Charts of many types are in the value of one or more variables as another variable changes.
used in aircraft maintenance and operation manuals. Broken-line graph – A broken-line or bar graph us used to
show comparative quantitative data. The space between the lines
A table showing the values of powers and roots is a chart. It is have no significance.
made up of numerical lists. Other charts may have the Pie-graph – The circular or pie graph is used to show division
combination of numerical data and text, as in the case of a or distribution of the whole.
troubleshooting chart. The service section of a maintenance Continuous-line graph –The continuous-line graph has a line
manual may have a lubrication chart with pictorial diagrams, connecting points which have been calculated or measured. The
text, numbers and symbols. line provides continuous information in that a reading can be
taken at any point on it.
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 12

G r a p h s o f a lin e a r fu n c tio n G r a p h o f a q u a d r a tic fu n c tio n

y = ax2 + bx + c
 A lin e a r f u n c t io n  f (x ) = a x 2 + b x + c
y
or y = ax2 + bx +c
f(x ) = a x + b
or y = ax + b a  T h e g r a p h o f a q u a d r a t ic
(0 , b ) f u n c t io n is a p a r a b o la
1
w h ere
 - D ir e c t io n o f o p e n in g

 x = in d e p e n d e n t x  - In te rc ep ts (0 , c ) x
v a r ia b le
 - A x is o f s y m m e t r y
 y = d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le
o r f u n c t io n  - T h e m a x im u m o r
m in im u m v a lu e
 a = s lo p e ( c o e f f ic ie n t o f
x)

 b = in t e r c e p t ( c o n s t a n t )

G r a p h s o f a lin e a r fu n c tio n - E x a m p le s G r a p h s o f a q u a d fu n c tio n - E x a m p le s

y = 2 x + 5 y = 0 x + 5 y = -2 x + 5 y = x2 y = x2 + 5 y = - x2 + 5

10 20 20 5

1 2 3 4
5 15 15 0

0 10 10 -5
1 2 3

-5 5 5 -10

-10 0 0 -15
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Direction: upwards Direction: upwards Direction: downwards
y - in te r c e p t : (0 , 5 )
Intercept: (0,0) Intercept: (0,5) Intercept: (0,5)
x - in te r c e p t : (- 2 .5 , 0 ) Axis of sy mmetry: x= 0 Axis of sy mmetry: x= 0 Axis of sy mmetry: x= 0
Minimum value : 0 Minimum value : 5 Maximum v alue : 5
 66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 13

G r a p h o f s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s G r a p h o f q u a d r a tic e q u a tio n s

 C a s e 1 : O n e in t e r s e c t io n p o in t . O n e u n iq u e s o lu t io n .
 T o s o lv e a x 2 + b x + c = 0
y
 C a s e 2 : L in e s p a r a lle l, n o in t e r s e c t io n s . N o s o lu t io n .
 o r x 2 = - b /a . x - c /a
 C a s e 3 : L in e s o v e r la p p in g . I n f in it e in t e r s e c t io n p o in t s .
I n f in it e s o lu t io n s .  w r it e a s

y  1) y = x2 and
y y
 2 ) y = - b /a . x - c /a
x

 T h e in t e r s e c t io n p o in t s a r e
o x o x o x
t h e s o lu t io n s t o t h e g iv e n
T w o lin e s q u a d r a t ic e q u a t io n .
o v e r la p

Graphs of mathematical functions The graph of the quadratic function y = ax2+ bx +c is a parabola
With characteristic properties
Graphs can be used as an aid in solving mathematical problems.
Equations involving the values of x and y can be plotted on a a) direction of opening
graph to produce a visual indication of the value of each variable b) intercept on the y-axis
as the other changes. c) axis of symmetry
d) maximum or minimum value
The graph of the linear function y= mx + c is a straight line with
Sometimes a graph can be drawn of three variables. If two of the
a) slope m three variables are known, the approximately value of the other
b) intercept c on the y-axis. can be quickly determined.
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 14

P y th a g o r a s T h e o r e m : A p p lic a tio n
A n g le F u n c t io n s
s c e n a r io s
S im ila r r ig h t t r ia n g le s r 52 = 42 + 32
y
5
s u p e r im p o s e d . 3
132 = 122 + 52

x 4 12 = cos 2
 + s in 2  
B
B'  s in  = y /r 13 s e c 2   = ta n 2
 + 12
5
c o s  = x /r

c s c 2  = c o t 2
 + 12
 t a n  = y /x 12

A C' C  c s c  = r /y
1 sec  csc 
 s e c  = r /x s in  ta n  cot 

 c o t  = x /y cos  1 1

P y th a g o r a s T h e o r e m a n d its c o n v e r s e A n g le s o f r o ta tio n
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
B B x> 0 y< 0 r> 0 x> 0 y> 0 r> 0

c c
a H y p o te n u s e a S in p o s itiv e A L L p o s itiv e
H e ig h t C cw
p o s itiv e
r
C lo c k w is e ( c w ) y

A A 180 0
C C x
b B ase b

• If  C = 9 0 0, • If c2 = b 2 + a 2, th e n T a n p o s itiv e C o s p o s itiv e
th e n c2 = b 2 + a 2  C = 900 C o u n t e r - c lo c k w is e
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
(c cw )
x <0 y < 0 r> 0 x> 0 y< 0 r> 0
 66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 15

Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometirc functions are based on the ratios of the sides of a The importance of the foregoing functions lies in the fact that a
right triangle to one another. These ratios are given particular particular functions always has the same value for the same
names as below. angle. For example, sin 50º is always equal to 0.7660. In other
words, given any angle, there corresponds to a unique value of
The sine of angle A, called sin A, is the sine of the angle.

side opposite / hypotenuse = y / r Like algebraic functions, the sine of an angle is a dependent
variable which changes as angle, the independent variable,
The cosine of angle A, called cos A, is changes. Therefore these ratios are also called angle functions.

side adjacent / hypotenuse = x / r In the triangle shown below, the functions of the angle B are
cofunctions of the angle A. That is
The tangent of angle A, called tan A, is
B
side opposite/ side adjacent = y / x

The cotangent of angle A, called cot A, is

c
side adjacent / side opposite = x / y a
The secant of angle A, called sec A, is
A
hypotenuse / side adjacent = r / x
C b
The cosecant of angle A, called csc A, is sin B = cos A cos B = sin A
tan B = cot A cot B = tan A
hypotenuse / side opposite = r / y sec B = csc A csc B = sec A
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 16

C o - a n g le r u le s

60 2
1
30

-  3

2
60 2
1
1
= 30

-  3
-  3

 cos 30 =  3/ 2  cos 60 = 1/ 2
 sin 30 = 1/2  sin 60 =  3/ 2

 tan 30 = 1/  3  cot 60 = 1/  3

C o - a n g le r u le s
G r a p h o f A n g le F u n c tio n s
90-  r
y
y

B
x

s in    c o s    = ta n 
r
90-  r
y s in ( 9 0 0 -   = c o s 
y
 O A x
0 90 180 270 360
x
c o s ( 9 0 0 -    = s in 
x
ta n ( 9 0 -    = 1 / ta n 
0

 cos  = x/ r  cos (90-  = y/ r

 sin  = y/ r  sin (90-  = x/ r

 tan  = y/ x  cot (90-  = y/ x

 66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 17

G r a p h o f A n g le F u n c tio n s
G r a p h o f A n g le F u n c tio n s
s in e c o s in e
y
ta n g e n t

y = ta n x o 90° 180° 270° 360° x

180° 270° 360°
-1
90°
0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

y = s in x y = cos x

Changes in values of functions

The graph for the sine is called a sine wave. The sine wave The tangent becomes larger as the angle increases. The side
shows that the value of the sine increases from 0 to 90 and opposite becomes longer and the side adjacent becomes shorter.
decreases in value from 90 to 180. From 180 the value At 0, the value would be zero. As the angle approaches 90, the
increases bit in a negative direction until it reaches 270 at side adjacent diminishes to 0 and the tangent value becomes
which time it begins decreasing to zero at 360. At this point the very large and at 90, is said to be infinity ( ).
sine value has completed a full cycle of 360 and starts over
again.

The cosine has a similar wave form but it reaches maximum and
minimum values 90 from the sine wave.
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 18

R e c ta n g u la r c o o r d in a te s V e c to r s u s in g c o o r d in a te s

y  D is p la c e m e n t v e c t o r : C o n s id e r a p o in t m o v in g f r o m A t o
P ( 2 ,4 ) B o n t h e C a r t e s ia n p la n e .
 T o a n y p o in t P in t h e
p la n e , t h e r e
c o rr esp o n d s to o n e AB = AO + OB
B ( 2 ,4 )
4
 U n iq u e lin e O P d r a w n = - OA + OB
f r o m t h e o r ig in

= OB - OA 6
 U n iq u e t r ia n g le O P M O 2 M x
O
= (2 , 4 ) - (5 , -2 )
 U n iq u e p a ir o f v a lu e s
r e p r e s e n t in g t h e t w o -3 A (5 , -2 )
= (-3 , 6 )
s id e s o f t h e t r ia n g le
P ( x ,y )
 U n iq u e o r d e r e d p a ir
(2 , 4 )

C a lc u la tio n s u s in g c o o r d in a te s V e c to r s u s in g c o o r d in a te s
 F in d in g t h e m id - p o in t o f a lin e  D is p la c e m e n t v e c t o r : M a g n it u d e o f d is p la c e m e n t
segm en t
• I n t h e f ig u r e , M is t h e
Y
m id - p o in t o f A B , i.e ., A M | A B | =  (-3 )2 + 6 2
B ( 2 ,4 )
: M B =1: 1 A (x 1 , y 1)
=  (9 + 3 6 )

M (x , y ) = 45 6
x = ½ ( x1 + x 2 )
O X O
= 3 5
y = ½ (y 1 + y 2 )
B (x 2 , y 2)
-3 A (5 , -2 )
 66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 19

Coordinate Systems

There are many basic coordinate systems used in Mathematics. Cylindrical polar coordinates- To define cylindrical
These systems can represent points in two-dimensional or three- coordinates, we take an axis (the polar axis) and a perpendicular
dimensional space. plane (the equatorial plane), on which we choose a ray (the
initial ray) originating at the intersection of the plane and the
Rene Descartes (1596- 1650) introduced system of coordinates axis (the origin O). The coordinate of the point P are:
based on orthogonal (right angle) coordinates. These two- and
three-dimensional systems used in analytic geometry are often a. the vertical distance (z) from P above the equatorial plane;
referred to as Cartesian systems. b. the distance (r) between the projection of line OP to the
equatorial plane and the origin;
Similar systems based on angles from baselines are often c. the polar angle () between the projection of line OP to the
referred to as polar systems. equatorial plane and the origin.

Cartesian coordinates- In Cartesian coordinates, a point P is Spherical polar coordinates- To define spherical coordinates,
referred to by three real numbers, indicating the positions of the we take an axis (the polar axis) and a perpendicular plane (the
perpendicular projections from the point to three fixed, equatorial plane), on which we choose a ray (the initial ray)
perpendicular, graduated lines called the axes. If the coordinates originating at the intersection of the plane and the axis (the
are denoted by x, y, z in that order, the axes are the x-, y- and z- origin O). The coordinate of the point P are:
axis and we write P = (x, y, z).
a. the distance (r) from P to the origin;
Often the x-axis is imagined to be horizontal and pointing b. the zenith angle () between the line OP and the positive
roughly toward the viewer (out of the page), the y-axis also polar axis;
horizontal and pointing more or less to the right, and the z-axis c. the azimuth angle () between the initial ray and the
vertical, pointing up. The system is called right-handed if it can projection of OP to the equatorial plane.
be rotated so the three axes are in this position.
Latitude, Longitude and Height- Geodetic datums define the
A displacement from a point A to a point B on the Cartesian reference systems that describe the size and shape of the earth.
plane can be represented by the use of coordinates. For example The most commonly used coordinate system today is the latitude,
is A = (2, 4, 2) and B = (5, 2, 3), then longitude and height system. The Prime Meridian and the
Equator are the reference planes used to define latitude and
AB = AO+ OB= -OA + OB = OB – OA = (3, -2, 1) longitude.
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 20

V e c to r s u s in g c o o r d in a te s
 D is p la c e m e n t v e c t o r : D ir e c t io n o f d is p la c e m e n t

m = ta n 
B ( 2 ,4 )
= 6 / ( - 3 ) = - 2

m = (y 2 - y 1 ) / (x 2 -x 1 ) O

= (-2 -4 ) / (5 -2 )
-3 A (5 , -2 )
= -6 / 3 = -2

 =

T r a n s fo r m a tio n s u s in g c o o r d in a te s T r a n s fo r m a tio n s u s in g c o o r d in a te s
 M a g n if ic a t io n : k ( x , y ) = ( k x , k y )  R o t a t io n : R ( x , y ) = ( - y , x )
B ( ? ,? )

T h e v e cto r O B h a s th e T h e v e cto r O B h a s th e
s a m e d ir e c t io n a s O A s a m e m a g n it u d e a s O A A (2 , 4 )
b u t h a s 1 0 t im e s t h e b u t is r o t a t e d b y 9 0 ° in
m a g n it u d e . F in d O B . t h e c o u n t e r c lo c k w is e
B ( ? ,? )
d ir e c t io n . F in d O B .
A (1 , 2 )
O B = 1 0 (1 , 2 ) 
O B = R (2 , 4 ) 
= (1 0 , 2 0 ) O O
= (-4 , 2 )

| O B | =  (1 0 2 + 2 0 2)
m = t a n  = 2 / - 4 = - 1 /2
= 1 0  (1 2 + 2 2)
t a n ( 9 0 +  ) = - c o t   - 1 /2
= 1 0  5 = 1 0 |O A |
 66B1/ B2 Module 1- Mathematics 1.3 Geometry Level 2 Sep 04 Page 21

P o la r C o o r d in a te s

 P o s it io n o f a n y p o in t in
t h e x - y p la n e is d e f in e d
by P (x , y )

r
 P o s it io n v e c t o r O P

 R e c t . c o o r d in a t e s ( x , y ) O

 P o la r c o o r d in a t e s ( r ,  )

x = r cos 
y = r s in 

P o in t fu n c tio n e x a m p le s

 A s c a la r o r a v e c t o r q u a n t it y w h o s e m a g n it u d e a t a n y
p o in t d e p e n d s o n t h e lo c a t io n o f t h e p o in t .

 p ( x , y , z ) = t h e s t a t ic p r e s s u r e in t h e I S A

 E ( x , y , z ) = t h e e le c t r o s t a t ic f ie ld s u r r o u n d in g a p o in t
charge

 V ( x , y , z ) = t h e v e lo c it y f ie ld in t h e b o u n d a r y la y e r
V = V (x , y, z)
Module 1.3 Geometry Page 22