I.

Types of Tasks

What are tasks? Numerous competing definitions of tasks exist. Many of these definitions focus
on different aspects of what constitutes a task. One of the most widely quoted definitions for task is
offered by Long (1985). He refers to a task as:

A piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for

some reward. Thus examples of tasks include [. . .] filling out a
form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation,
borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, [. .
.], making a hotel reservation, writing a check, finding a street
destination and helping someone across the road. In other words,
by “task” is meant the hundred and one things people do in
everyday life, at work, at play, and in between (p. 89).

Another well-known definition is provided by Nunan (1989). He considers a task as

Any classroom work which involves learners in comprehending,

manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language while their
attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form ( p. 10).

More recently, Skehan (1998) summarizes the parameters for a task activity in the following way:
“(a) meaning is primary, (b) learners are not given other people‟s meanings to regurgitate, (c) there
is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities, (d) task completion has a priority,
and (e), the assessment of tasks are done in terms of outcome” (p. 147).

From these definitions, despite the various interpretations, several common design features can be
identified. These features include: All three definitions emphasize the importance of

1- Focus on meaning.
2- The use of real-world tasks or activities that are comparable to authentic task behavior
(Long & Skihan) which implies the use of real language to accomplish these tasks.

Nunan‟s (1989) definition makes specific reference to the classroom environment and points out
that task performance may entail employing a single skill or a combination of several skills.

Task Taxonomies

Nunan (1993) distinguishes between two kinds of tasks:

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 1- Real-world tasks are designed to emphasize those skills that learners need to have so they
can function in the real world. Such tasks normally simulate authentic task behavior, and
their primary focus is often the achievement of an end product.
2- Pedagogical tasks are intended to act as a bridge between the classroom and the real world
in that they serve to prepare students for real-life language usage (see Long, 1998). Such
tasks are often referred to as “preparation” or “assimilation” tasks.

Example: Organizing a welcome dinner

Prabhu‟s Catecirization of Pegagogical Tasks

Prabhu (1987) categorizes task in terms of the gaps the learner is required to fulfill. Information”
reasoning and opinion gaps are supposed to endorse learners in real language use and activate their
motivation because „the gap motivates the learner to use language in order to close it‟ (Ellis,
2003:3).

a- Information-Gap Activity

As long as the communicative function of any language subsumes data exchange and information
transfer, it will be necessary to provide a framework that reveals how to do so. This transmission
requires some modifications in terms of:

1) Style: learners are different in expressing the same thing in different ways.
2) The message itself e.g. from a chart to a paragraph or vise versa
3) The mode e.g. from oral conversation to written one
4) The consequences of time and place: the information may fade away through time or space.

Prabhu explains that this sort of tasks involve “ a transfer of a given information from one person to
another, from one form to another, or from one place to another, generally calling for the decoding
or encoding of information from or into language” (Prabhu, 1987:46). In this sort of activites the
outcomes are predictable (it is a referential task).

b- Reasoning-Gap Activity

It is a task that „involves deriving some new information from given information through
processes of inference, deduction, practical reasoning or a perception of relationships or
patterns” (Prabhu, 1987:46). This kind of tasks enhances the learners‟ abilities to judge and value
things through logic and reason.

c- Opinion-Gap Activity

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 It “involves identifying and articulating a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in
response to a given situation” (Prabhu, 1987:47). Opinion–gap activities result in open-ended
outcomes, those which are neither clear nor pre-determined by the teacher or the task designer
for they are subjected to learners‟ linguistic abilities.

Task Components

Nunan (1988) specifies a number of components a task should have:

1- Goal:

Nunan describes goals as „the vague general intentions behind a given task‟, so goals reflect bit
so not determine specific, measurable outcomes. E.g. exchanging personal information

2- Input:

Input is the data which ay be verbal or non-verbal i.e. linguistic or non-linguistic that are made
available for the learner to carry out their task. E.g. questionnaire about sleeping habit

3- Activity:

Activities „specify what learners will actually do with the input‟ (Nunan, 1989:59). This means
how, what, where and when the learners are supposed to deal with input. E.g. reading
questionnaire/ Asking and answering questions about sleeping habits

4- Teacher role:

By role is meant the part played by the teacher and the learners and the relation yielded during
the learning process when carrying the task.

Note: There is a noticeable change in what concerns the role of teachers in the communicative
approach.

E.g. monitor and facilitator

5- Learner role:

Learners in the communicative approach are supposed to act effectively as language users where
they take responsibility for their own learning process. E.g. conversational partner

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 6- Setting:

It refers to “ the classroom arrangements specified or implied in the task, and it also requires
consideration of whether the task is to be carried out wholly or partially outside classroom”
(Nunan, 1989:91). Setting is further divided into social and physical.

a- Learning mode: refers to social setting i.e. whether the task involves the whole class, small
group or individuals.
b- Environment: refers to the physical setting e.g. where learning actually takes place e.g.
classroom, occupational setting, self-access learning centre…

E.g. classroom /pair work

What is the difference between “Task”, “Exercise”, and “ Activity”?

The terms task, exercise and activity are understood differently depending on who defines them.
Richards use them as follows:

An exercise is a teaching procedure that involves controlled, guided or open ended practice of some
aspect of language. A drill, a cloze activity, a reading comprehension passage can all be regarded as
exercises.

The term activity is more general and refers to any kind of purposeful classroom procedure that
involves learners doing something that relates to the goals of the course. For example singing a
song, playing a game, taking part in a debate, having a group discussion, are all different kinds of
teaching activities.

A task is normally defined as follows:

 It is something that learners do, or carry out, using their existing language resources or those
that have been provided in pre-task work.
 It has an outcome which is not simply linked to learning language, though language
acquisition may occur as the learner carries out the task.
 It is relevant to learners‟ needs.
 It involves a focus on meaning.
 In the case of tasks involving two or more learners, it calls upon the learners‟
 Use of communication strategies and interactional skills.
 It provides opportunities for reflection on language use.

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II. Task-Based Language Teaching

Task based learning that is a different way to teach languages can help the student by placing
him/her in a situation like in the real world (situation where oral communication is essential in
fulfilling the task).

Figure 1: Task-Based Framework

In Willis‟s TBL framework (p. 155), the main stages (which are explained below) are as follows:

1. Pre-task

2. Task cycle

2.1 Task

2.2 Planning

2.3 Report

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3. Language focus (related to language used in the task)

3.1 Language analysis

3.2 Language practice (of language from the analysis activities)

In this framework, Willis (1996) outlines the roles of the teacher and the learners at each stage:

1. Pre-task

The teacher:

☐☐ introduces and defines the topic

☐☐ uses activities to help students recall/learn useful words and phrases

☐☐ ensures students understand task instructions

☐☐ may play a recording of others doing the same or a similar task

The students:

☐☐ note down useful words and phrases from the pre-task activities and/or the recording

☐☐ may spend a few minutes preparing for the task individually

2. Task cycle

2.1 Task

The students:

☐☐ do the task in pairs/small groups – it may be based on a reading or listening text

The teacher:

☐☐ acts as monitor and encourages students

2.2 Planning

The students:

☐☐ prepare to report to the class how they did the task and what they discovered/decided

☐☐ rehearse what they will say or draft a written version for the class to read

The teacher:

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☐☐ ensures the purpose of the report is clear

☐☐ acts as language advisor

☐☐ helps students rehearse oral reports or organise written ones

2.3 Report

The students:

☐☐ present their spoken reports to the class, or circulate/display their written reports

The teacher:

☐☐ acts as chairperson, selecting who will speak next, or ensuring all students read most of the

written reports

☐☐ may give brief feedback on content and form

☐☐ may play a recording of others doing the same or a similar task

3. Language focus

3.1 Language analysis

The students:

☐☐ do C-R activities to identify and process specific language features from the task, text and/or

transcript

☐☐ may ask about other features they have noticed

The teacher:

☐☐ reviews each analysis activity carefully with the class

☐☐ brings other useful words, phrases and patterns to the students‟ attention

☐☐ may pick up on language from the report stage

3.2 Language practice

The teacher:

☐☐ conducts practice and analysis activities where necessary to build confidence

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The students:

☐☐ practise words, phrases and patterns from the analysis activities

☐☐ practise other features occurring in the task, text or report stage

☐☐ enter useful language in their language notebooks

Task 9.12

Design a task for a specific group using one of the following task types suggested

by Willis (1996: 26–7): listing; ordering and sorting; comparing; problem-solving;

sharing personal experiences; creative tasks.

Task 9.13

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of this TBL cycle as a framework for materials

development with reference to:

• coverage of language

• coverage of skills

• fluency, accuracy and complexity

(Source : Material Development in TESOL)

Advantages of TBL
1. Task based learning is useful for moving the focus of the learning process from the teacher
to the student.
2. It gives the student a different way of understanding language as a tool instead of as a
specific goal.
3. It can bring teaching from abstract knowledge to real world application.
4. A Task is helpful in meeting the immediate needs of the learners and provides a framework
for creating classes, interesting and able to address to the students‟ needs.