3.

1 Classification of Power Plants

Fig 3.1 Classification of Power Plants

Reasons:
1. Steam can be raised quickly from water
2. It does not react much with materials.
3. It is stable at temperatures required in the plant
3.2 Layout of Steam Power Plant
The layout of steam power plant has the following circuits:
1. Fuel (Coal) and ash circuit
2. Air and flue gas circuit
3. Feed water and steam flow circuit
4. Cooling water flow circuit.

3.2.1 Coal and Ash Circuit

Fig 3.2 Layout of Steam power Plant

Coal and Ash Circuit
• Coal from mines is delivered by ships, rails or trucks to the power
station.
• Coal received at coal yard.
•
• Coal is sized by crushers, breakers etc.,
• The sized coal is stored in coal storage.

• From stock yard, the coal is transferred to the boiler furnace by

means of conveyors, elevators etc.,
• The coal is burnt in the boiler and ash is formed.

• Ash coming out of the furnace will be too hot, dusty and
accompanied by poisonous gases.
• The ash is transferred to the ash storage.
• Generally the ash will be quenched to reduce the temperature and
the dust content.

3.2.2 Air and Flue Gas Circuit

• Air is taken from the atmosphere by the action of FD fan.
• It is passed through an air pre heater
• The air is preheated by the flue gases in the pre heater.
• This preheated air is supplied to the furnace to aid the combustion
of fuel.
• Due to the combustion of fuel the flue gases are formed.
• The flue gases from the furnace pass over the boiler tubes and super
heater tubes.
• Then the flue gases pass through economiser to heat the feed water.
• After that it passes through a dust collector.
It is then exhausted to atmosphere through chimney

3.2.3 Water and Steam Circuit

Fig 3.3 Layout of Steam Power Plant Water and Steam Circuit
• The water is preheated by the flue gases in the economiser.
• This preheated water is then supplied to the boiler drum.
• Heat is transferred to the water by the burning of the coal.
• Due to this, water is converted into the steam.
• The steam raised in boiler is passed through a super heater.
• It is superheated by the flue gases.
• The turbine drives generator to produce electric power.
• The expanded steam is then passed through the condenser.
• In the condenser, steam is condensed into water there circulated .

3.2.4 Cooling Water Circuit

• The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed in the condenser.
 • In the condenser, the cold water is circulated to condense the steam
into water.
• The steam is condensed by losing its latent heat to the circulating
the cold water.
• Hence the cold water gets heated.
• This hot water is then taken to a cooling tower.
• In cooling tower the water is sprayed in the form of droplets
through nozzles.

• The atmospheric air enters the cooling tower from the openings
provided at the bottom of the tower.
• This cold water is again circulated through the pump, condenser
and the cooling
• Some amount of water may be lost during circulation.
• Hence make up water is added to the pond by means of a pump

Fig 3.4 Layout of Steam ( Thermal) Power Plant

Energy Conversion Process:
 Chemical Energy (Fuel/Coal)

Heat Energy(Boiler)

Mechanical Energy(Turbine)
Electrical Energy(Generator)
Advantages of Steam Power Plant (Thermal plant)

Life of plant is more (25-30 years ) compared to Diesel plant (2-

5 years)
Repair and maintenance cost is low when compared to diesel
plant.
Initial cost is less compared to nuclear plant.
Suitable for varying load conditions.
No radioactive harmful wastes are produced
Unskilled operators can operate the plant.
The power generation does not depend on the water storage.
There are no transmission losses, as they are located near load
centres.

Disadvantages of thermal power plant:

• Less efficient than diesel plants.

• Starting up and bringing into service takes more time.
• Cooling water required is more.
• Space required is more.
• Storage required for the fuel is more.
• Ash handling is a big problem
 • Not economical in areas which are remote from coal fields.
• Manpower required is more.
• For large units, the capital cost is more.

3.3 List Down The Factors To Be Considered For Selection of

Site For Thermal Power Plant:
Availability of coal:
• A thermal plant of 400M, capacity requires nearly 6000 tons
of coal every day.

• Power plant should be located near coal mines.

Ash Disposal Facilities:

• Ash comes out in hot condition and handling is difficult.
• The ash can be disposed into sea or river.
Water Availability :
• Water consumption is more as feed water into boiler,
condenser and for ash disposal.
• Water is required for drinking purpose.
• Hence plant should be located near water source.

Transport Facility :
Public Problems: • The plant should be far away from residential area to
avoid nuisance from smoke, fly ash and noise.
Nature of Land :
• Many power plants have failed due to weak foundations.
• Land (soil) should have good bearing capacity to withstand
dead load of plant.
Thermal power plants in T.N :
 Neyveli
Tuticorin
Ennore
Mettur
Explain about the pollution caused by Thermal Power Plant (Steam
Power Plant):
• Main pollutants from thermal plants are SO 2 , CO 2 , CO as
minute particles such as fly ash.
• SO 2 causes suffocation, irritation to throat and eyes and
respiratory for people. It destroys crop.
• CO is a poisonous gas.
• Dust particles cause respiratory troubles like cough, cold,
sneezing etc.,
Thermal Pollution:
• Thermal plants produce 40 million kJ of heat to the
environment through condenser water and exhaust gases.
• Thermal pollution of atmosphere can be reduced using the
low grade energy exhausted steam.
Noise Pollution:
• The sources of noise in a power plant are turbo alternators,
fans and power transformers.
• Sound proofing can be done to reduce the noise.
3.4 Gas Power Plant
• A gas power plant uses gas turbine as the prime mover for
generating electricity.
• It uses natural gas or kerosene or benzene as fuel.
• Gas plant can produce only limited amount of the electricity.
• Efficiency of the plant is only 35%
 • Generally a gas plant is expensive to operate.
• Hence it is usually installed with steam power plant in closed
combined cycle.
• It is generally used in combination with steam/thermal power
plant during peak load

• When the gas power plant is combined with thermal/steam

power plant efficiency of the plant is up to 60% - 70%.

Fig 3.5 Layout of the Gas turbine Power plant

Combustion and generation of electricity:
• Gas turbine draws clean air into through air filter from
atmosphere, with the help of a compressor.
• During the compression pressure of the air is increased.

• Compressed air is passed through to a combustion chamber along

with fuel (Natural gas).
• The air fuel mixture is ignited at high pressure in the combustion
chamber.
• Combustion takes place.
• The generated hot gas of compression is passed through the gas
turbine.

• Hot gases expand, and the turbine blades are connected to the
turbine shaft are rotated.
• The turbine shaft which is coupled to the shaft of the electrical
generator at the other end also rotates and drives the electrical
generator.
• A portion of the energy developed by the hot gases through the
gas turbine is used to run the compressor.
• The residual hot gases from gas turbine are passed through a heat
exchanger (heat recovery steam generator)
• The heat exchanger produces steam with high pressure with the
help of a steam boiler.
• The steam is allowed to expand in the steam turbine.

• when it passes through the turbine blades, the turbine shaft is

rotated. The shaft is coupled to the generator, which generates
electricity.
• Gas turbine and steam turbine combination enables increased
power generation.
Transmission and distribution :
• The generated electricity from both gas and steam turbines is fed
to the step up transformer where its voltage is increased.
• Then the electricity is conveyed through transmission lines for
distribution.
MERITS:
• Natural gas is readily available.
• Setting up cost can be reduced if the plant is installed near the
source of natural gas.
• Less gas storage cost
• Less space occupation.
• Compared to steam power plant, smaller in size.
• Low operating cost.
• Low maintenance cost.
• No standby losses.
• Cheaper fuels like natural gas.
Demerits:

• Gas turbine has low thermal efficiency.

• Has starting problem.
• Efficient only in combined cycle configuration.
• Temperature of combustion chamber is too high, which results in
shorter life time.
3.5 Diesel Power Plant

Fig 3.6 Diesel Power Plant

3.5.1 Working of Diesel Power Plant
• Air from atmosphere is drawn into the compressor and is
compressed.
• The compressed air is sent to diesel engine through filter.
• In the filter, dust, dirt from air are filtered and only clean air is
sent to diesel engine.
• Fuel oil from tank is passed through filter where it gets filtered
and clean oil is injected into the diesel engine through fuel pump and
fuel injector

• Mixture of compressed air and spray of fuel oil are ignited into
the engine and combustion takes place.
• The heat energy is utilized for driving the generator, which
produces power.

3.5.2 Main Components of a Diesel Power Plant

1. Fuel Supply system
It consists of fuel tank, fuel filter and fuel pump and injector.
2. Air Intake and Exhaust system
It consists of compressor, filter and pipes for the supply of air and
pipes for exhaust gases. In the exhaust system silencer is provided to
reduce the noise.
3. Cooling system
Circulates water around the Diesel engines to keep the temp at reasonably
low level.
4. Lubricating system
It includes lubricating oil tank, pump, filters and lubricatin g oil.
5. Starting system
For initial starting the devices used are compressed air, battery,
electric motor or self-starter.
3.6 Hydro Electric Power Plant
 Fig 3.7 Hydro Electric power plant
3.6.1 Components of Hydro Electric Power Plant
Reservoir :
• Water is collected during rainy season
• It is stored in the reservoir.
• A dam is built across the river adequate water head.

Penstock :
• It is a passage through which water flows from reservoir to
turbine.
Surge Tank :
• It is installed along the penstock (between turbine and reservoir)
• To control or regulate the sudden water over flow and to protect
the penstock from bursting.
• It reduces the pressure and avoids damage to the penstock due to
the water hammer effect.
• When the load on the turbine is decreased there will be a back
flow, which causes increase or decrease in pressure. It is known as
water hammer.
• Power House :
• It is building that houses that water turbine, generator, transformer
and control room.
• Water Turbine:
• Water turbines such as Pelton, Kaplan and Francis are used to
convert pressure and kinetic energy of flowing water into mechanical
energy.
• Draft Tube:
• It is connected to the outlet of the turbine.
• Tailrace:
• It refers to the downstream level of water discharged from
turbine.
• Generator :
• It is a machine used to convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
• Step up transformer:
• It converts the Alternating Current (AC) into high voltage current
suitable for transmission.
3.6.2 Working Principle of Hydro Electric Power Plant
• It uses the potential energy of water of water stored in a reservoir.

• The water from the reservoir through a penstock and then forced
through nozzle or nozzles before reaching the turbine.
• The hydraulic turbine converts the kinetic energy of water under
pressure into mechanical energy.
• The shaft of the turbine is coupled to a generator that generates

electricity.

• The electricity generated is fed to the step-up transformer to

increase its voltage.

• Power is fed to the transmission lines for distribution.
• The output power of Hydel power plant depends on the head of
water stored in the reservoir and the quantity of water discharged
3.6.3 Classification of Hydro Electric Power Plant

Factors to be considered for the location of hydroelectric Power

Availability of Water:
Adequate water must be available with good head .
Cost and type of Land:
Bearing capacity of the land should be good to withstand huge structures
and equipment’s.
Storage of Water :
A dam must be constructed to store the large quantity of water in
order to cope with variations of water availability throughout the
year.
Transportation Facilities :
 The site should be accessible by rail and road for easy transportation of
equipment’s and machinery.

Pumped storage facilities :

The pumping facilities to reuse the water should be possible.
Merits of Hydro Electric Power Plant:

• Requires no fuels and hence pollution free.

• Low operating cost.
• Simple in construction and requires less maintenance.
• Skilled personnel is required for construction.
• High cost of transmission as plant is normally required far
off from hilly areas.
• Period of delay causes the delay in the commissioning of the
plant.
• Construction of new hydel plant may need rehabilitation of
people and payment compensation for land acquisition.

3.7 Nuclear Power Plant

 Fig 3.8 Nuclear power plant

Nuclear power plant uses nuclear energy from radioactive

element for generating electrical energy.
More than 15% of the world’s electricity.
It is generally located far away from populated areas.
In future generation of electricity will be depending on Nuclear Power Plant, as it is
economical.
kg of uranium U -235 can produce electrical power electrical that can be produced by
using 3000 -4500 tonnes of high grade coal or 2000 tonnes of oil.

3.7.1 Components of Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear Fuel :
Normally used nuclear fuel is uranium (U 235 )
Fuel Rods:
The fuel rods hold nuclear fuel in a nuclear power plant.
Neutron Source: A source of neutron is required to initiate the fission
for the first time. A mixture of beryllium with plutonium is commonly
used as a source of neutron.
Reactor:
• Nuclear fission takes place in the reactor only.
 • Nuclear fission produces large quantity of heat.
• The heat generated in the reactor is carried by coolant circulated
through the reactor.
Control Rods:
• They are used to control the chain reaction.
• They are absorbers of neutrons.
• The commonly used control rods are made up of cadmium or boron.
Moderator:
• Moderators are used to slow down the fast neutrons.
• It reduces 2 MeV to an average velocity of 0.025 eV.
• Ordinary or heavy water are used as moderators.
Fuel Rods:
• The fuel rods hold nuclear fuel in a nuclear power plant.
Neutron Reflectors:
• To prevent the leakage of neutrons to large extent.
• In PHWR, the moderator itself acts as reflectors.
Shielding:
• To protect from harmful radiations the reactor is surrounded by a
concrete wall of thickness about 2 to 2.5 m.

Nuclear Fission
 Fig 3.9 Nuclear fission
• It is a process of splitting up of nucleus of fissionable material like
uranium into two or more fragments with release of enormous
amount of energy.
• The nucleus of U 235 is bombarded with high energy neutrons
U 235 + 0 n 1 Ba 141 +Kr 92 +2.5 0 n 1 +200 MeV energy.
• The neutrons produced are very fast and can be made to fission other
nuclei of U 235 , thus setting up a chain reaction.
• Out of 2.5 neutrons released one neutron is used to sustain the chain
reaction.
1 eV = 1.6X10 -19 joule.
1 MeV = 10 6 eV
3.7.2 Working Principle of Nuclear Power Plant
• The heat generated in the reactor due to the fission of the fuel is
taken up by the coolant.
• The hot coolant then leaves the reactor and flows through the steam
generator.

• In the steam generator the hot coolant transfers its heat to the feed
water which gets converted into steam.
• The steam produced is passed through the turbine, which is coupled
with generator.
• Hence the power is produced during the running of turbine.
• The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed in the condenser.
• The condensate then flows to the steam generator through the feed
pump.
• The cycle is thus repeated.
Advantages of Nuclear Power Plant:
• Requires less space compared to steam power plant.
• Fuel required is negligible compared to coal requirement.
• Fuel transport cost is less.
• Reliable in operation.
• Cost of erection is less.
• Water required is very less.
Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant:
• Initial Cost is higher.
• Not suitable for varying load condition.
• Radioactive wastes are hazardous. Hence these are to be handled
with much care.
• Maintenance cost is higher.
• Trained workers are required to operate the plant.
 Nuclear Power Plants in India:
• IGCAR, Kalpakkam in Chennai.
• Rana Pratap Sagar in Rajasthan
• Narora in Uttar Pradesh

• Kakarpur near Surat at Gujarat

3.8 Pumps
• A pump is a machine which is used to raise or transfer the fluids.
• It is also used to maintain the constant flow rate or constant pressure.
• It is normally driven by a engine or a motor.
• Pumps are rated by the horse power.
3.8.1 Classification of Pumps
It is classified into positive displacement pumps and roto dynamic pumps.

• In positive displacement pumps , fluid is drawn or forced into a

finite space and it is sealed.
• It is then forced out and the cycle is repeated.
• In roto dynamic pumps , centrifugal force is used to move the fluid
into a pipe.
3.8.2 Reciprocating Pumps
• It is a positive displacement pump

• It uses a piston and cylinder arrangement with suction and delivery

valves integrated with the pump.
• It can be single acting and double acting
• There may be single or multi cylinders also.
• It is a positive displacement pump
 • It sucks and raises the liquid by actually displacing it with a
piston/plunger that executes a reciprocating motion in a closely fitting
cylinder.
3.8.3 Working of Single Acting Reciprocating Pump
• During suction stroke the piston moves to the left, causing the inlet
valve to open.
• Water is admitted into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
• During the discharge stroke the piston moves to the right closes the
suction valve and opens the out let valve.
• Through the outlet valve the volume of liquid moved out of the
cylinder.
3.8.4 Working of Acting Reciprocating Pump
• Each cycle consists of two strokes.
• Both the strokes are effective, hence it is known as double acting
pump
• Liquid is filled at one end and discharged at other end during
forward stroke.
• During the return stroke, end of cylinder just emptied is filled and
the end just filled is emptied.
3.9 Air Vessels
Air vessel is a closed chamber containing compressed air in the upper part
and liquid being pumped in the lower part.
 Fig 3.10 Air vessels
3.9.1 Purpose of Using an Air Vessel
• To get continuous supply of liquid at a uniform rate.
• To save the power required to drive the pump (By using an air
vessel the acceleration and friction heads are considerably reduced )
.

• To run the pump at much higher speed without any danger of

separation.

Advantages of reciprocating pump:

• Relatively compact design
• High viscosity performance
• Ability to handle high differential pressure

3.10 Centrifugal Pumps

 Fig 3.11 Centrifugal Pumps
3.10.1 Components of Centrifugal Pump
• A rotating component comprising of an impeller and a shaft.
• A stationery component comprising a volute (casing),
suction and delivery pipe.
3.10.2 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump
Principle:
When a certain mass of fluid is rotated by an external source, it is
thrown away from the central axis of rotation and a centrifugal head is
impressed which enables it to rise to a higher level.
Working:
• The delivery valve is closed and the pump is primed, so that no air
pocket is left.
 • Keeping the delivery valve still closed the electric motor is started
to rotate the impeller.
• The rotation of the impeller is gradually increased till the impeller
rotates at its normal speed.
• After the impeller attains the normal speed the delivery valve is
opened when the liquid is sucked continuously up to the suction pipe.
• It passes through the eye of the casing and enters the impeller at its
centre.

• The liquid is impelled out by the rotating vanes and it comes out at
the outlet tips of the vanes into the casing.
• Due to the impeller action the pressure head as well as the velocity
heads are increased.
• From the casing the liquid passes into the pipe and lifted to the
required height.
• When pump is to be stopped the delivery valve is to be first closed,
otherwise there may be some backflow of water into the reservoir.

Types of casing

Fig 3.12 Volute and Vortex Casing

 Fig 3.13 Volute and Diffuser casing

Volute Casing: In this type of casing the area of flow gradually increases
from the impeller outlet to the delivery pipe.
Vortex Casing:
If a circular chamber is provided between the impeller and volute chamber
the casing is known as Vortex Chamber.
Diffuser C :
• The impeller is surrounded by a diffuser.
• The guide vanes are designed in such a way that the water from the
impeller enters the guide vanes without shock.
• It reduces the vibration of the pump.
• Diffuser casing, the diffuser and the outer casing are stationery
parts.
Priming of a centrifugal Pump:
• The operation of filling the suction pipe, casing and a portion of
delivery pipe with the liquid to be raised, before starting the pump is known
as Priming
• It is done to remove any air, gas or vapour from these parts of
pump.
• If a Centrifugal pump is not primed before starting air pockets
inside impeller may give rise to vortices and causes discontinuity of flow
Losses in Centrifugal pump:
Hydraulic Losses:
• Shock or eddy losses at the entrance to and exit from the impeller
• Losses due to friction in the impeller
• Friction and eddy losses in the guide vanes/diffuser and casing
Mechanical Losses:
• Losses due to disc friction between the impeller and the liquid which
fills the clearance spaces between the impeller and casing.
• Losses pertaining to friction of the main bearing and glands.

Specific speed of Centrifugal Pump:

It is the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar

impeller would deliver one cubic meter of liquid per second against a
delivery head of one meter.
3.11 Impulse Turbine
• The steam coming out at a very high velocity through the nozzle
impinges on the blades fixed on the periphery of rotor.
• The blades change the direction of steam flow without change in
pressure.
• The resulting force cause s the rotation of the turbine. E.g. Pelton wheel.

3.12 Reaction Turbine

• The high pressure steam from the boiler is passed through the
nozzles.

• When the steam comes out through these nozzles, the velocity of
steam increases relative to the rotating disc.
3.12.1 Comparison Between Impulse And Reaction Turbine
S.No. Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
1 It consists of nozzles and It consists of fixed blades which
 moving blades act as nozzles and moving blades
Steam is expanded Steam is partially expanded in the
completely in the nozzle. All fixed blades. Some amount of
the pressure energy is pressure energy is converted into
2 converted into kinetic energy kinetic energy
Pressure of steam is constant Pressure drop takes place in the
3 over the moving blades. moving blades.
Because of high pressure
drop in the nozzles, blade Because of small pressure drop,
speed and steam speed are blade speed and steam speed are
4. high. less.
5. Low Efficiency High Efficiency
Occupies less space per unit Occupies more space per unit
6. power power.
4.1 Introduction
Heat Engine:
• Heat Engine is a machine which converts heat energy supplied to it into
mechanical work.
• Heat energy is supplied to the engine by burning the fuel.

4.2 Classification of Heat Engines

• Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)
In IC engines, combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder. Examples:
Diesel Engines, Petrol Engines, Gas engines.
• External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)
In EC engines, combustion of fuel takes place outside the working cylinder. Examples:
Steam Engines and Steam turbines
IC Engines are classified into,
1) Cycle of operation (No of Strokes per cycle)
• Two Stroke cycle Engines
• Four Stroke Cycle Engines
2) Thermodynamic Cycle or Method of Heat addition:
• Otto Cycle Engines (Combustion at constant volume)
• Diesel Cycle Engines (Combustion at constant Pressure)
• Semi Diesel Engines (Dual Combustion Engines)
3) Types of Fuel Used :
• Petrol Engines
• Diesel Engines
• Gas Engines
4) Ignition Method :
• Spark Ignition (SI)
• Compression Ignition (CI)
5) Cooling System:
• Air cooled Engines
• Water Cooled Engines
6) Valves Location :
• L head (Side valve) engine
• T Head (Side valve) engine
• I head (overhead valve) engine
• F head (overhead inlet and side exhaust) engine

4.3 Main Components of IC Engines

Cylinder Block
• It is the main block of the engine.
• It contains cylinders accurately finished to accommodate pistons
• The cylinder block houses crank, camshaft, piston and other engine parts.
• In water cooled engines, the cylinder block is provided with water jackets for the
circulating cooling water.
• The materials used for cylinder are grey cast iron, aluminium alloys etc.,
It is usually made of a single casting

Fig 4.1 Cylinder block of motor cycle and Cylinder block of car
Cylinder Head
• The cylinder head is bolted to the cylinder Block by means of studs.
• The water jackets are provided for cooling water circulation.
• The materials used for cylinder head are cast iron, aluminium alloy etc.,
• This is also generally made of single cast iron.
Cylinder Liners
• The liner is a sleeve which is fitted into the cylinder bore.
• It provides wear resisting surface for the cylinder bores.
Liners are classified into:
 Fig 4.2(a) Dry liner (b) Wet liner
Cylinder Liners
Wet Liner : These liners are surrounded or wetted by cooling water. It provides wear
resisting surface for the piston to reciprocate. Also it acts as a seal for the water jacket
Dry Liner : Dry liners have metal to metal contact with the cylinder block. They
are not directly in touch with the cooling water.

Liner Materials:
• Liner material should withstand abrasive wear and corrosive. Chromium plated mild
steel
• Tubes are used as liners.
Crankcase : It may be cast integral with the cylinder block. Sometimes, it is cast
separately and then attached to the block. These materials are used for crank case are
cast iron, aluminium alloys or alloy steels.

Oil pan or oil sump:

Oil sump is the bottom part of the engine. It contains lubricating oil. A drain plug is
provided the oil sump to drain out the oil. It is made of the pressed sheet.
Piston :
The piston serves the following purposes
• It acts as a movable gas tight seal to keep the gases inside the cylinder
• It transmits the force of explosion in the cylinder to the crankshaft through the
connecting rod.
• Some of the materials used for piston are cast iron, aluminium alloy, chrome nickel
alloy, nickel iron alloy and cast steel
Piston rings :
Piston rings are inserted in the grooves provided in the piston. Two types of piston rings are
used in the piston.
1. Compression rings
2. Oil rings or oil control rings

Fig 4.3 Piston rings

Piston Rings (Compression and Oil rings)

Compression rings :
• Compression rings provide an effective seal for the high pressure gases inside the
cylinder. They prevent the leakage of high pressure gases from the combustion
chamber into the crank case.
• Each piston is provided with at least two compression rings.
Oil rings :
• Oil rings wipe off the excess oil from the cylinder walls.
• It also returns excess oil to the oil sump, through the slots provided in the rings. The
materials used for piston rings should be wear resistant.
Normally piston rings are made of alloy steel iron containing silicon, manganese alloy
steels etc.
Connecting Rod:
• It connects the piston and crank shaft.
• It transmits the force of explosion during power stroke to the crankshaft.
• The connecting rod has bearings at both ends.
• The small end of the connecting has a solid or split eye and contains a bush.
• This end is connected to the piston by means of a gudgeon pin.
• The other end is called as big end of the connecting rod.
• The connecting rods must withstand heavy thrusts.
• Hence it must have strength and rigidity.
• They are usually drop forged I sections.
• The materials used are plain carbon steel, aluminium alloys, nickel alloy steels etc,
Crank Shaft :
 • It is the main rotating shaft of the engine.
• Power is obtained from the crank shaft.
• The crank shaft is combination with connecting rod converts reciprocating motion of
the piston into rotary motion.
• The crank shaft is held in position by the main bearings.
• There are two main bearings to support the crank shaft.
• The materials used for crank shaft are billet steel, carbon steel, nickel chrome and other
heat treated alloy steels.
Camshaft:
• Camshaft contains number of cams.
• It is used to convert rotary motion into linear or straight line motion.
• It has so many cams as the number of valves in an engine.
• An additional cam is also provided to drive the fuel pump.
• A gear is provided in the cam shaft to drive the distributor or oil pump.
The opening and closing of the engine valves are controlled by the cams provided on the
cam shaft.
4.4 Petrol Engines
Classification of Petrol Engines
• Two Stroke cycle Petrol Engines
• Four Stroke cycle petrol Engines
4.4.1 Two Stroke Cycle Petrol Engines
 Fig 4.4 Two stroke cycle petrol engines

Two Stroke Cycle Petrol Engine

Construction :
• A piston reciprocates inside the cylinder
• It is connected to the crankshaft by means of connecting rod and crank
• There are no valves in two stroke engines, instead of valves ports are cut on the
cylinder walls.
• There are three ports, namely inlet, exhaust and transfer ports.
• The closing and opening of the ports are obtained by the movement of piston. The
crown of piston is made in to a shape to perform this.
• A spark plug is also provided.

First Stroke : (Compression, ignition and inductance) (Upward stroke of

piston)
(a) compression:
• The piston moves up from Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) to Top Dead Centre (TDC)
• Both transfer and exhaust ports are covered by the piston.
 • Air fuel mixture which is transferred already into the engine cylinder is compressed
by moving piston.
• The pressure and temperature increases at the end of compression.
First Stroke : (Compression, ignition and inductance) (Upward stroke of
piston)
(b) Ignition and Inductance:
• Piston almost reaches the top dead centre
• The air fuel mixture inside the cylinder is ignited by means of an electric spark
• produced by a spark plug
• At the same time, the inlet port is uncovered by the plane.
• Fresh air fuel mixture enters the crankcase through the inlet port.
Second Stroke : (Downward Stroke of the engine) :
(c)Expansion and Crankcase compression
• The burning gases expand in the cylinder
• The burning gases force the piston to move down. Thus useful work is obtained.
• When the piston moves down, the air fuel mixture in the crankcase is partially
compressed. This compression is known as Crank case compression.
Second Stroke: (Downward Stroke of the engine) :
(d) Exhaust and transfer:
• At the end of expansion, exhaust port is uncovered.
• Burnt gases escape to the atmosphere.
• Transfer port is also opened. The partially compressed air fuel mixture enters the
cylinder through the transfer port.
• The crown of the piston is made of a deflected shape. So the fresh charge entering the
cylinder is deflected upwards in the cylinder.
• Thus the escape of fresh charge along with the exhaust gases is reduced.

4.4.2 Two Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines- Construction

Construction :
• Two stroke cycle diesel engines require air supply
• This air is used to blow out the exhaust gases and to fill the cylinder with clean air
• This air is supplied by a blower or air compressor which is driven by engine itself.
• These engines may be valve or port type.
• A plate is provided in the crank case to admit air into the crank case.
• Transfer and exhaust ports are provided in the cylinder.
• These ports are covered and uncovered by the moving piston.

First Stroke (Upward Stroke of the piston)

(a) Compression and inductance:
 • The piston moves upwards from Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) to Top Dead Centre
(TDC).
• Both transfer and exhaust ports are covered.
• Air which is transferred already into the engine cylinder is compressed by moving
piston.
• The pressure and temperature of the air increases.
• At the same time, fresh air is admitted into the crankcase through the plate valve
(reed valve)

First Stroke (Upward Stroke of the piston)

(b) Ignition and inductance.
• Piston almost reaches the top dead centre.
• The fuel is injected into the hot compressed air inside the cylinder. The fuel mixed
with hot air and burns.
• The admission of fresh air into the crankcase continues till the piston reaches the
top centre.
Second Stroke (Downward Stroke of the piston)
(c) Expansion and crank case compression:
• The burning gases expand in the cylinder.
• Burning gases force the piston to move down. Thus useful work is obtained.
• At the same time, the air in the crank case is compressed by the movement of
piston.
• All the ports and the plate valve are in closed position
Second Stroke (Downward Stroke of the piston)
(d) Exhaust and Transfer:
• At the end of expansion, the exhaust port is uncovered.
• The burnt escape to the atmosphere through the exhaust port.
• Transfer port is also uncovered shortly after the exhaust port is opened.
• The partially compressed air from crank case enters the cylinder the transfer
port.
• This air is deflected upwards by the deflected shape of the piston.
• Thus the entering air helps in forcing out the combustion products from the
cylinder
• The plate valve remains during this period.
4.4.3 Four Stroke Cycle Petrol Engines
Construction :
• A piston reciprocates inside the cylinder
• The piston is connected to the crank shaft by means of a connecting rod and
crank.
• The inlet and exhaust valves are Mounted on the cylinder head.
 • A spark is provided on the cylinder Head.
• The fuel used is petrol

Fig 4.5 Four stroke cycle petrol engines

Four Stroke Petrol Engine- Working

Fig 4.6 Working of four stroke petrol engine

(a) Suction Stroke (First Stroke of the Engine)

• Piston moves down from TDC to BDC
• Inlet valve is opened and the exhaust valve is closed.
• Pressure inside the cylinder is reduced below the atmospheric pressure.
• The mixture of air fuel is sucked into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
(b) Compression Stroke : (Second Stroke of the
piston)
• Piston moves up from BDC to TDC
• Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
• The air fuel mixture in the cylinder is compressed.
 (c) Working or Power or Expansion Stroke: (Third
Stroke of the Engine)
• The burning gases expand rapidly. They exert an impulse (thrust or force) on the
piston. The piston is pushed from TDC to BDC
• This movement of the piston is converted into rotary motion of the crankshaft
through connecting rod.
• Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.

(d) Exhaust Stroke (Fourth stroke of the piston)

• Piston moves upward from BDC
• Exhaust valve is opened and the inlet valve is closed.
• The burnt gases are forced out to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve
(Some of the burnt gases stay in the clearance volume of the cylinder)
• The exhaust valve closes shortly after TDC
• The inlet valve opens slightly before TDC and the cylinder is ready to receive
fresh charge to start a new cycle.
Summary :
• Compression ratio varies from 5 to 8
• The pressure at the end of compression is about 6 to 12 bar.
• The temperature at the end of the compression reaches 250 o C to 350 o C

4.4.4 Four Stroke Diesel Engine

Fig 4.7 Four Stroke Diesel Engine

 Construction:
• A piston reciprocates inside the cylinder
• The piston is connected to the crankshaft by means of a connecting rod and
crank.
• The inlet and exhaust valves are mounted on the cylinder head.
• A fuel injector is provided on the cylinder head
• The fuel used is diesel.

(a) Suction Stroke (First Stroke of the piston)

• Piston moves from TDC to BDC
• Inlet valve is opened and the exhaust valve is closed.
• The pressure inside the cylinder is reduced below the atmospheric pressure.
• Fresh air from the atmosphere is sucked into the engine cylinder through air
cleaner and inlet valve.
(b) Compression stroke (Second stroke of the
piston)
• Piston moves from BDC to TDC
• Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
• The air is drawn during suction stroke is compressed to a high pressure and
temperature
(c) Working or power or expansion stroke (Third
stroke of the piston)
• The burning gases (products of combustion) expand rapidly.
• The burning gases push the piston move downward from TDC to BDC
• This movement of piston is converted into rotary motion of the crank shaft
through connecting rod.
• Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
Exhaust Stroke (Fourth stroke of the piston)
• Piston moves from BDC to TDC
• Exhaust valve is opened the inlet valve is closed.
• The burnt gases are forced out to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve.
(some of the burnt gases stay in the clearance volume of the cylinder)
• The exhaust valve closes shortly after TDC
• The inlet valve opens slightly before TDC and the cylinder is ready to receive
fresh air to start a new cycle.

4.6 Scavenging
• It is the process of forcing out the burnt exhaust gases from the cylinder for
admitting the fresh charge into the cylinder.
 • This action takes place in the two stroke cylinder.

4.6.1 Scavenging Process

• The charge (air fuel mixture or air) enters the engine cylinder from the crank
case at a pressure higher than the exhaust gases.
• This fresh charge forces the exhaust gases to the atmosphere through the
exhaust port.
• During the period both the transfer and exhaust ports are kept open for a short
period.
• Hence there is a possibility of the fresh charge escaping out with the burnt
gases.
• This is overcome by designing the piston to have a deflected shape.
• This shape of piston deflects the fresh charge upward in the engine cylinder.
• It also helps out in forcing out the exhaust gases to atmosphere.
• This process is known as Scavenging.

4.5 Comparison Between SI And CI Engines (General Comparison)

S.NO. Spark Ignition Engines (SI) Compression Ignition Engines (CI)

1 It draws air fuel mixture into the It draws only air into the cylinder during
cylinder during suction stroke suction stroke.
2 Petrol engines operate with low Diesel engines operate with high
pressure and temperature pressure and temperature
3. Pressure ranges from 6 to 12 bar Pressure ranges from 35 to 40 bar
Temperature ranges from 250 C to Temperature ranges from 600 0 C to 700 0
o

300o C C
4 It is fitted with carburettor and It is fitted with fuel injection pump and
spark plugs injectors
5 The burning of fuel takes place at The burning of fuel takes place at
constant volume constant pressure
6. Ignition of air fuel mixture takes Ignition of air fuel takes placed by a
place by an electric spark produced injection of fuel into the hot compressed
by spark plug air.
7 Petrol engines are quality governed Diesel engines are quantity governed
engines. The speed of petrol engines. The speed of diesel engines is
engines are controlled by varying controlled by varying quality of air fuel
the quantity of air fuel mixture. mixture. (rich or weak mixture)
8 Petrol engines are Diesel engines are widely used in heavy
 widely used in vehicles, such as buses, lorries, trucks
automobiles and aeroplanes etc., etc.,

4.6 Comparison Between SI And CI Engines (Merits And Demerits)

S.No. Spark Ignition Engines (SI) Compression Ignition Engines (CI)
Merits: Otto cycle is employed in
Demerits: Diesel engines works on diesel
petrol engine. Otto cycle is more
1 cycle. Diesel cycle is less efficient than
efficient for a given compression Otto cycle for a given compression ratio.
ratio.
Operating speed is more. Speed range Operating speed is less. Speed range is400
2
is 3000 to 6000 rpm to 3500 rpm.
Starting is easy, since cranking effort Starting is difficult since more cranking
3
required is less effort is required.
Demerits: More initial and maintenance
Merits: Initial cost and maintenance
4 costs since the construction is heavy and
cost are less
sturdy.
5 Produces less noise. Produces more noise.
6 Weight per unit power is less Weight per unit power is more.
7 Specific fuel consumption is more. Specific fuel consumption is less
The fuel used is petrol. It is costlier The fuel used is diesel. It is cheaper than
8 than diesel. It is volatile and fire petrol. It is less volatile and fire hazard is
hazard is more less.

4.7 Comparison Between Four Stroke Cycle And Two Stroke Cycle Engine
(Merits And Demerits)
S.No. Two Stroke Cycle Engine Four Stroke Cycle Engine
Merits: One power Demerits: One power stroke in
1 stroke in one two
revolution of the crankshaft revolutions of the crank shaft
Power developed for the same engine Power developed for the same engine speed
2 speed theoretically twice that of a is theoretically half that of two stroke
four stroke engine engine.
Simple design and lighter in For the same power complicated design and
3
construction for the same power heavier in construction
4 Merits: Uniform torque is obtained. Demerits: Non uniform torque on the
 Hence a lighter fly wheel can be used crankshaft. Hence a heavier flywheel is
required for balancing.
Design of ports is simpler. Hence Design valve mechanism is difficult. Hence
5
initial cost is less initial cost is more.
Mechanical efficiency is high. No Mechanical efficiency is less. Power is lost
6 moving parts like cam, follower, due to friction caused by valve mechanism
rocker arm valves etc.,
7 Merits: Starting is easy Demerits: Starting is not so easy
8 These engines are generally air These engines are generally water cooled.
cooled

4.8 Comparison Between Four Stroke Cycle And Two Stroke Cycle Engine
(Merits And Demerits)
S.No. Two Stroke Cycle Engine Four Stroke Cycle Engine
Demerits: Consumption of Merits: Consumption of lubricating
lubricating oil is more, because less oil is less, because more time is
1
time is available to remove the heat allowed for removing heat from the
cylinder.
2 More wear and tear of moving Less wear and tear of parts is less
parts.
Some of the fresh air fuel mixture Fuel cannot escape with exhaust
3 may escape with exhaust gases. gases. Hence fuel consumption is
Hence fuel consumption is more less.
4 Demerits: Thermal efficiency is Merits: Thermal efficiency is more.
less.
It produces more noise due to Noise is less is less. Exhaust gases
5
sudden release of exhaust gases are released in separate stroke.
Scavenging is poor, since exhaust Scavenging is better, since there is a
6 port is open only for a short time separate exhaust stroke for the
removal of exhaust gases
Merits: Poor scavenging leads to Demerits: Better
mixing of fresh charge with performance and
7
exhaust gases. This results in poor efficiency is more
performance, slow running
8 Used in light vehicles, like bikes, Used in heavy vehicles, like buses,
 scooters, mopeds, etc., lorries, trucks etc.,

4.9 I.C Engine Terminology

The standard terms used in I.C Engines are
1. Bore :
Inside diameter of the cylinder is termed as Bore.
2. Top Dead Center (TDC) :
The extreme position reached by the piston at the top of the cylinder in the vertical
engine is called Top Dead center.
3. Bottom Dead Center (BDC) :
The extreme position reached by the piston at the Bottom of the cylinder in the
vertical engine is called Bottom Dead center.
4. Stroke:
The nominal distance travelled by the piston in the cylinder between the extreme
upper and lower positions of the piston (TDC &BDC) is termed as stroke.
5. Compression ratio (r):
It is the ratio of Maximum cylinder volume to the Clearance volume.
6. Cylinder volume (v):
It is the sum of swept volume and the Clearance
volume.
V = Vs + Vc
7. Swept volume (Vs):
It is the volume of space generated by the movement of piston from one dead center to
another dead center.
8. Clearance Volume( Vc):
It is the space in the cylinder, when the piston is at Top Dead Center.

4.9.1 major parts of an IC engine

1. Cylinder
• It is a round cylindrical casting in which a piston slides in and out to make
strokes.
• Combustion take place inside the cylinder. The cylinder is closed by a cylinder
head.
Material: Grey cast iron, Aluminium
2. Cylinder head
It is fitted to the top of the cylinder. It has inlet and outlet values, spark plug, Fuel
injector, Water jackets.
Material: C.I, Aluminium
3. Piston
It is a device which transmits the energy (or) force of the expanding gas to the connecting
rod. It slides up and down inside the cylinder . Material: C.I, Aluminium
alloy, Cast steel.
 4. Piston rings
Piston rings are inserted in the grooves of piston. There are two
types of rings.
1) Oil ring ( One ring is used)
2) Compression ring( Two ring is used)
5. Connecting rod
It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of
crankshaft. The small end of the connecting rod is connected to
piston and the big end is connected to the crankshaft.
Material: Plain carbon steel, Aluminium alloys
6. Crank shaft
It is the device used for getting power from the motion of the
piston and connecting rod and this power is applied to the
flywheel.
Material: Alloys steel.
7. Camshaft
It operates the opening and closing of the engine values. It has number
of cams which are driven by crank shaft through timing gears. The function of the cam
is to convert the rotary motion into the linear reciprocating
motion
Material: Alloys steel
8. Crank case
It is the bottom portion of the I.C engine and holds the cylinder and
the crank case. It also serves as a pump for the lubricating oil.
Material: Aluminium alloy, Cast iron
9. Flywheel :
It is a big wheel attached with crankshaft. It maintains the speed of the
engine.
10. Valves : The function of the value is to admit the fresh charge in the cylinder and to
send the exhaust gases out. There are two values namely inlet value and outlet value.
Material: Inlet value: Nickel chrome.
Outlet value: Nickel chrome, Stainless steel etc
11. Water Jackets
Water jackets are provided in the cylinder head. The purpose of
water jackets is to keep the walls of the engine cool.

4.10 Steam Boilers

• Generates steam by transferring heat by burning of fuel to water.
• Energy released by burning fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous) is transferred to the water
in the boiler.
Classification of boilers:
The steam boilers are classified as
 • According to flow of water and hot gases.
1. Fire Tube Boilers
2. Water Tube Boilers
• According to the method of firing.
1. Internally fired boilers
2. Externally fired boilers
• According to the Pressure developed
1. Low pressure boilers
2. High pressure boilers
In fire tube boilers,
• The hot gases pass through the tubes surrounded by water.
• The water is get heated up and converted into steam
• The exhaust gases are sent to atmosphere through chimney. E.g. Locomotive boiler,
Lancashire boiler.
4.10.1 Fire Tube & Water Tube Boilers
According to flow of water and hot gases:
In water tube boilers,
• Water is circulated through number of tubes and the hot flue gases flow over these
tubes.
• A number of tubes are connected with boiler drum through header.
• The hot gases flow over these tubes many times before escaping through the stack.
• The water is converted into steam and steam occupies steam space.
• E.g. Babcock & Wilcox, Stirling, BHEL boiler, Velox, Lamont, Loeffler Boiler.
According to the method of firing:
• In internally fired boiler the furnace grade is provided inside the boiler shell.
(Lancashire, Locomotive boilers).
• In externally fired boilers, The furnace grate is provided outside or built under the
boiler shell.
4.10.2 Internally Fired Boiler
Fig 4.8 Internally Fired Boiler
 4.10.2 Externally Fired Boiler

Fig 4.8 Externally Fired Boiler

According to the Pressure Developed:
In Low Pressure Boilers , Steam is produced at a pressure lower than 80 bar.
(E.g. Cochran, Lancashire, Locomotive)
In High Pressure Boilers , Steam is produced at a pressure more than 80
bar. (E.g. Lamont, Velox, Benson, Loeffler boiler).
4.10.3 Cochran Boiler
 Fig 4.9 Cochran Boiler
• Coal is fed into the grate through the fire hole and burnt.
• Ash formed during the burning is collected in the ash pit provided just below the
grate.
• Ash is then removed manually.
• The hot gases from the grate pass through the combustion chamber to the
horizontal fire tubes and transfer the heat by convection.
• The flue gases coming out of fire tubes pass through the smoke box and escape to
the atmosphere through the chimney.
• Smoke box is provided with a door for cleaning the fire tubes and smoke box.
• The working pressure and steam capacity of Cochran boiler are 6.5 bar and 3500
kg /hr respectively.

4.10.4 Lamont Boiler

 Fig 4.10 Lamont Boiler
• It is a water tube, forced circulation and externally fired high pressure boiler.
• The capacity of the plant is 50 tonnes/hr
• Pressure of the steam generated is 170 bar.
• Temperature of the steam produced is 500o C
Working:
• Feed water is pumped to the boiler by the feed pump through the economiser.
• Economiser preheats the feed water by using hot gases leaving the boiler.
• The circulating pump circulates the water from the drum under high pressure to
prevent the tubes from being overheated
• Water is evaporated into steam when passing through these tubes.
• The water and steam from the tube enters the boiler drum where the steam is
separator.
• This steam is passed through a convection superheater and the steam is superheated
by the flue gases.
This superheated steam is supplied to the prime mover through steam outlet.
 • The water level in the drum is kept constant by pumping the feed water into
the boiler drum.
• The air is preheated by the flue gases before entering the combustion
chamber to aid the combustion of the fuel.
• This type of boiler has a working pressure of 170 bar.
• They can produce the steam at the rate of 45000 kg per hour.

4.11 Boiler Mountings & Accessories

Boiler Mountings:
• Boiler mountings are primarily intended for the safety of the boiler and for
complete control of steam generation process.
Boiler Accessories :
• Boiler accessories are installed to increase the efficiency of the boiler plants to
help in proper working of boiler unit. Boiler Mountings:
• Dead weight safety valve.

• Spring loaded safety valve

• Fusible plug
• Pressure gauge :

Fig 4.11 Dead Weight Safety Valve

Dead Weight Safety Valve:
• Weights are placed sufficiently in the weight carrier.
• The total load on the valve includes the weight of the carrier, the weight of the
cover, the weight of the discs and the weight of the valve itself.
 • When the steam pressure exceeds the normal limit, the valve along with the
weight carrier is lifted off its seat.
• Thus the steam escapes through the discharge pipe.

Spring Loaded Safety Valve:

Fig 4.12 Spring Loaded Safety Valve

• The steam pressure acts below the valves.
• When the steam pressure is normal the valves are held in their seats tightly by the
spring force.
• When the steam pressure in the boiler exceeds the working pressure, both valves
are lifted off their seats.
• Thus the steam from the boiler escapes the boiler and steam pressure is reduced.
• The blow off pressure is adjusted by loosening or screwing the nut.

Fusible Plug:
 Fig 4.13 Fusible Plug

• Under normal working conditions, the fusible plug is completely covered with
water.
• Hence the temperature of the plug is not increased appreciably during
combustion process.
• When the water level falls below the safe limit the fusible plug is uncovered from
water and exposed to steam.
• The furnace heat over heats the plug and it melts the fusible metal and copper
plug falls down.
• Due to this water steam mixture rushes into the furnace and the fire is
extinguished .
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
 Fig 4.14 Bourdon Tube

• The steam pressure is applied to the elliptical cross section of the tube to
straighten out slightly.
• The closed end of the Bourdon tube moves.
• This movement actuates the toothed sector and pinion rotates.
• The pointer is mounted on the pinion. Hence the pointer moves on the graduated
dial in clockwise, to indicate the steam pressure.
Water Level Indicator
 Fig 4.15 Water Level Indicator
• To know the water level in the boiler the handles of the steam cock and water
cock are kept in vertical positions.
• Water rushes through the bottom casting and steam rushes through the upper
casting to the gauge glass tube.
• The level of water corresponds to the water level in the boiler.
4.12 BOILER ACCESSORIES

Economiser
Air Preheater
Super Heater
Steam Separator
Steam Trap Feed Pump
1. Economiser:

Fig 4.16 Economizer

• The feed water is pumped to the bottom header and this water is carried to
the top header number of vertical tubes.
• Hot flue gases are allowed to pass over the external surface of the tubes.
• The feed water which flows upward in the tubes is heated by the flue gases.
• This preheated water is supplied to the water.
• Scrappers are moved slowly moved up and down to clean the surface of the
tubes.
2. Air Preheater:
 Fig 4.17 Air Preheater

• Hot flue gases pass through the tubes of air preheater after leaving the boiler or
economiser.
• Air and flue gases flow in opposite directions.
• Baffles are provided in the air preheater and the air passes number of times over
the tubes.
• Heat is absorbed by the air from the flue gases.
• This preheated is supplied to the furnace to aid combustion.

3. Super heater
 Fig 4.18 Super heater

• Steam stop valve is opened.

• The steam from the evaporator drum is passed through the super heater tubes.
• First the steam passed through the radiant super heater and then to the convective
super heater.
• The steam is heated when it passes through these super heaters and converted into
the super-heated steam.
• This superheated steam is supplied to the turbine through the valve.
• The steam is allowed into the separator.
• The steam strikes the baffle plates and the direction of flow is changed.
• As a result, heavier particles in steam falls down to the bottom of the separator.
• The separated steam is free from water particles.
• It is passed to the turbine or engine through the outlet pipe.
4. Steam Separator

Fig 4.19 Steam Separator

5. Steam Trap
 Fig 4.20 Steam Trap
• The condensed water enters the steam trap by gravity.
• When the water level in the trap rises high enough, the ball float is lifted.
• This causes the valve to open and the water is discharged through the outlet.
• After the discharge of water, the float moves down.
• This causes the valve to close again.

4.12 Differences Between Boiler Mountings And Accessories

Sl. Boiler Mountings Boiler Accessories
No.
Mountings are fitted for the safety Accessories are fitted to increase the
1
of the boiler. efficiency
2 They form integral parts of the They are not integral part of the boiler
boiler
They are usually mounted on the They are usually installed outside the
3
boiler shell boiler shell
A boiler should not be operated A boiler can be operated without
4
without mountings accessories
 5.1 Refrigeration
• It is defined as the process of providing and maintaining a temperature well below
that of surrounding atmosphere.
• In other words refrigeration is the process of cooling substance.
Refrigerators and heat pumps:
• If the main purpose of the machine is to cool some object, the machine is named
as refrigerator.
• If the main purpose of machine is to heat a medium warmer than the surroundings,
the machine is termed as heat pump.

Terminologies of Refrigeration:
Refrigerating Effect (N):
It is defined as the quantity of heat extracted from a cold body or spac e to be cooled in
a given time.
N= Heat extracted
from the cold
space Time
taken
Specific Heat of water and ice :
It is the quantity of heat required to raise or lower the temperature of one kg of water (or
ice), through one kelvin or (10 c) in one second.

Specific heat of water, C pw = 4.19 kJ/kg K

Specific heat of ice, C pice = 2.1 kJ/kg K.

Capacity of a Refrigeration Unit :

Capacity of a refrigerating machines are expressed by their cooling capacity. The
standard unit used for expressing the capacity of refrigerating machine is ton of
refrigeration.

One ton of refrigeration is defined as, “the quantity of heat effect) to freeze one ton
of water Heat extracted from at 0o c = latent heat of ice into one ton of ice in a duration
of 24 hours at 0o C”.

Latent heat of ice= 336 kJ/kg i.e., 336 kJ of heat should be extracted one kg of
water at 0 o C to convert it into ice.
One ton of refrigeration = 336x1000 kJ/24 hrs.
= 336x1000 kJ/min
24x60
One ton of refrigeration = 233.333 kJ/min
= 3.8889 kJ/sec
Co efficient of Performance
It is defined as the ratio of heat extracted in a given time (refrigerating effect) to the work
input.
Co efficient of performance = Heat extracted in evaporator / Work Input
Co efficient of performance =Refrigerating Effect / Work Input
Co efficient of performance = NW
The COP is always greater than 1 and known as theoretical coefficient of performance.
Applications of Refrigeration:
• In chemical industries, for separating and liquefying the gases.
• In manufacturing and storing ice.
• For the preservation of perishable food items in cold storages.
• For cooling water.
• For controlling humidity of air manufacture and heat treatment of steels.
• For chilling the oil to remove wax in oil refineries.
• For the preservation of tablets and medicines in pharmaceutical industries.
• For the preservation of blood tissues etc.,
• For comfort air conditioning the hospitals, theatres, etc.,

Properties of Refrigeration:
• A good refrigerant should have high latent heat of vaporisation.
• It should have low boiling and low freezing point.
 • It should be nontoxic and should non corrosiveness
• It should be non-flammable and non-explosive.
• It should have high thermal conductivity
• It should be easy to handle
• It should have low specific volume of vapour.
• It should have high co efficient of performance.

5.2 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

Fig 5.1 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

Construction:
This system consists of a compressor, condenser, a receiver tank, an expansion valve and
an evaporator.
Compressor : Reciprocating compressors generally used. For very big plants centrifugal
compressors directly coupled with high speed rotating engines (gas turbine) are used.
For very big plants Centrifugal compressors directly coupled with high speed rotating
engines (gas turbine) are used
Condenser : It is a coil of tubes made of copper.
Receiver tank: It is the reservoir of liquid refrigerant.
Expansion Valve: This is a throttle valve. High pressure refrigerant is made to flow at a
controlled rate through this valve.
Evaporator : It is the actual cooler and kept in the space to be cooled. The evaporator is a
coil of tubes made of copper
 5.3 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
Construction:
• The vapour absorption system consists of a condenser, an expansion valve and an
evaporator.
• They perform the same as they do in vapour compression method.
• In addition to these, this system has an absorber, a heat exchanger, an analyser and
a rectifier.
Working:
• Dry ammonia vapour at low pressure passes in to the absorber from the evaporator.
• In the absorber the dry ammonia vapour is dissolved in cold water and strong
solution of ammonia is formed.
• Heat evolved during the absorption of ammonia is removed by circulating cold
water through the coils kept in the absorber.
• The highly concentrated ammonia (known as Aqua Ammonia) is then pumped by
a pump to generator through a heat exchanger.

Fig 5.2 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System

• In the heat exchanger the strong ammonia solution is heated by the hot weak
solution returning from the generator to the absorber.
• In the generator the warm solution is further heated by steam coils, gas or
electricity and the ammonia vapour is driven out of solution.
• The boiling point of ammonia is less than that of water.
• Hence the vapours leaving the generator are mainly of ammonia.
 • The weak ammonia solution is left in the generator is called weak aqua.
• This weak solution is returned to the absorber through the heat exchanger.
• Ammonia vapours leaving the generator may contain some water vapour.
• If this water vapour is allowed to the condenser and expansion valve, it may freeze
resulting in chocked flow.
• Analyser and rectifiers are incorporated in the system before condenser.
• The ammonia vapour from the generator passes through a series of trays in the
analyser and ammonia is separated from water vapour.
• The separated water vapour returned to generator.
• Then the ammonia vapour passes through a rectifier.
• The rectifier resembles a condenser and water vapour still present in ammonia
vapour condenses and the condensate is returned to analyser.
• The virtually pure ammonia vapour then passes through the condenser.
• The latent heat of ammonia vapour is rejected to the cooling water circulated
through the condenser and the ammonia vapour is condensed to liquid ammonia.
• The high pressure liquid ammonia is throttled by an expansion valve or throttle
valve.
• This reduces the high temperature of the liquid ammonia to a low value and liquid
ammonia partly evaporates.
• Then this is led to the evaporator.
• In the evaporator the liquid fully vaporizes.
• The latent heat of evaporation is obtained from the brine or other body which is
being cooled.
• The low pressure ammonia vapour leaving the evaporator again enters the absorber
and the cycle is completed.
• This cycle is repeated again to provide the refrigerating effect.
Applications of refrigeration system:
• Preservation of food items like vegetables, milk and eggs.
• Preservation of medicines.
• Preservation of blood, tissues, etc.,
• Preservation and cooling of cool drinks.
• Preservation of chemicals (Chemical industries)
• Cooling of water.
• Industrial and comfort air conditioning.
• Processing of dairy products.
5.4 Comparison Between Vapour Compression & Vapour Absorption
Refrigeration Systems
S.No. Vapour Compression System Vapour Absorption System
 1. This system has more wear and tear Only moving part in this system is an
and produces more noise due to the aqua pump. Hence the quieter in
moving parts of the compressor. operation and less wear and tear

2. Electric power is needed to drive Waste of exhaust steam may be used. No

the system need of electric power
3. Capacity of the system drops Capacity of the system decreases with the
rapidly with lowered evaporator lowered evaporative pressure, by
pressure increasing the steam pressure in
generator.
4. At partial loads performance is At partial loads performance is not
poor. affected.
5. Mechanical energy is supplied Heat energy is utilized
through compressor
6. Energy supplied is ¼ to ½ of the Energy supplied is about one and half
refrigerating effect times the refrigerating effect

7. Charging of the refrigerating to the Charging of refrigerant is difficult

system is easy
8. Preventive measure is needed, since Liquid refrigerant has no bad effect on
liquid refrigerant accumulated in the system.
the cylinder may damage to the
cylinder

5.5 Air Conditioning

Air Conditioning is the process of conditioning the air according to the human
comfort, irrespective of external conditions.
Applications of Air Conditioning
• Used in offices, hotels, buses, cars, etc.
• Used in industries having tool room machines.
• Used in textile industries to control moisture.
• Used in printing press.
• Used in Food industries, Chemical plants.

5.6 Classification of Air Conditioning

Air conditioning systems are classified as
1) According to the purpose
• Comfort Air conditioning.
 • Industrial Air conditioning.
2) According to Season of the year
• Summer Air conditioning.
• Winter Air conditioning.
• Year round Air conditioning.
Types of Air conditioners
• Room Air conditioners
• Winter Air conditioners • Central Air conditioners
Functions of Air conditioners
• Cleaning air.
• Controlling the temp of air.
• Controlling the moisture content.
• Circulating the air.
Basic Concepts:
• Dry air: The atmospheric air which no water vapour is called dry air.
• Psychometry: Psychometry is the study of the properties of atmospheric air.
• 3) Temperature: The degree of hotness (or) Coldness is called the temperature.
• Moisture: Moisture is the water vapour present in the air.
• Relative humidity: Relative humidity is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour
in a given volume to the mass of water vapour.
• Dry bulb temperature: The temperature of air measured by the ordinary
thermometer is called dry bulb temperature:
• Wet bulb Temperature: The temperature of air measured by the thermometer
when it is covered by the wet cloth is known as wet bulb Temperature.
• Dew point Temperature: The temperature at which the water vapour starts
condensing is called dew point Temperature
5.7 Window Type Air Conditioner

Fig 5.3 Window Type Air Conditioner

Construction:
This is also called room air conditioner. This unit consists of the following.
• A cooling system to cool and dehumidify the air involves a
condenser, a compressor and a refrigerant coil.
• A filter to any impurities in the air. The filter is made of mesh,
glass wool or fibre.
• A fan and adjustable grills to circulate the air.
• Controls to regulate the equipment operation.
• The low pressure refrigerant vapour is drawn from the evaporator
to the hermetic compressor through suction pipe.
• It is compressed from low pressure to the high pressure and
supplied to the condenser. • It is condensed in the condenser by
passing the outdoor air over the condenser coil by a fan.
 • The liquid refrigerant is passed through the capillary into the
evaporator.
• . In the evaporator the liquid refrigerant picks up the heat from
the refrigerator surface and gets vaporized.
• A motor driven fan draws air from the room through the air filter
and this air is cooled by losing its heat to the low temperature
refrigerant and cold air is circulated back into the room.
• The vapour refrigerant from the evaporator goes to the
compressor from evaporator and the cycle is repeated.
• Thus the room is air conditioned
• The quantity of air circulated can be controlled by the dampers.
• The moisture in the air passing over the evaporator coil is
dehumidified and drips into the trays. • This water evaporator to
certain extent and thus helps in cooling the compressor and
condenser.
• The unit automatically stops when the required temperature is
reached in the room. This is accomplished by the thermostat and
control panel.
Merits and Demerits of Window type air
conditioner:
Merits :
• A separate temperature control is provided in each room.
• Ducts are not required for distribution.
• Cost is less.
• Skilled technician is required for installation.
Demerits:
• It makes noise.
• Large hole is made in the external wall or a large opening to
be created in the window panel. This leads to insecurity to inmates .

5.8 Split Type Air Conditioner - Layout

• In split air type air conditioner noise making components
like compressor and condenser are mounted outside or away from
room.
 • Split type air conditioning system has two main
components.
• The indoor unit consists of power cables, refrigerant tube
and an evaporator mounted inside the room.

Fig 5.4 Split Type Unit

Working:
• Compressor is used to compress the refrigerant.
• The refrigerant moves between the evaporator and condenser
through the circuit of tubing and fins in the coils.
• The evaporator and condenser are usually made of coil of
copper tubes and surrounded by aluminium fins.
 • The liquid refrigerant coming from the condenser evaporates
in the indoor evaporator coil.
• During this process the heat is removed from the indoor unit
air and thus, the room is cooled.
• Air return grid takes in the indoor air.
• Water is dehumidified out of air is drained through the drain
pipe.
• The hot refrigerant vapour is passed to the compressor and
then to • the condenser where it becomes liquid. Thus the cycle is
repeated.
• A thermostat is used to keep the room at a constant,
comfortable temperature avoiding the frequent turning on off.
Merits and Demerits of Split type air
conditioner:
Merits :
• It is compact
• Up to four indoor AHU’s may be connected to
• It is energy and money saving.
• Duct is not used.
• Easier to install.
• It is noiseless, because rotary air compressor used is, kept
outside.
• It is more efficient and powerful.
• It has the flexibility for zoning.
Demerits :
• Initial cost is higher than window air conditioner
• Skilled technician is required for installation.
• Each zone or room requires thermostat to control the air
cooling.
Applications of air conditioning:
• Used in houses, hospitals, offices, computer centres,
theatres, departmental stores etc.,
• Air-conditioning of transport media such as buses, cars
trains, aeroplanes and ships.
• Wide application in food processing, printing, chemical,
pharmaceutical and machine tool, etc.