Analog and Digital Communications -

Units 3, 4, 5 (10 Mark Answers)

Unit 3: Baseband Transmission (10 Marks Answers)

1. Importance of Baseband Transmission in Communication Systems

Baseband transmission refers to transmitting a digital signal over a communication channel
without modulation. It plays a key role in short-distance digital communication such as in
computer networks and local telephony. Baseband systems utilize the full bandwidth of the
channel for a single signal and avoid carrier modulation. They provide simplicity, lower
power consumption, and are efficient for wired channels like Ethernet. However, they are
limited in range due to attenuation and are susceptible to noise and inter-symbol
interference (ISI).

2. Matched Filter and Its Properties

A matched filter maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in the presence of white
Gaussian noise. It is a filter whose impulse response is the time-reversed and delayed
version of the expected input signal. Properties:
- Maximizes output SNR at sampling instant.
- Output is convolution of input with matched filter.
- Optimal for detection in additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN).
- Reduces bit error probability in digital receivers.

3. Effect of Noise on Error Rate in Baseband Transmission

Noise distorts signals during transmission, leading to incorrect detection and higher bit
error rate (BER). In AWGN, the probability of error depends on the SNR. Matched filtering
helps reduce this impact. As noise increases, the eye pattern begins to close, indicating
increased ISI and timing errors. Effective use of filtering, encoding, and error correction
techniques can mitigate the impact of noise.

4. Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) and Its Effects

ISI arises when transmitted symbols interfere with each other due to channel-induced
delays and dispersion. Causes include bandwidth limitations, multipath propagation, and
imperfect filtering. ISI results in increased BER and requires mitigation techniques like
pulse shaping, equalization, and use of the Nyquist criterion to ensure zero ISI at sampling
points.

5. Nyquist Criterion for Distortionless Transmission

The Nyquist criterion provides conditions to avoid ISI. It states that the combined response
of the transmission system should be such that the signal at sampling instants is zero for all
other symbols except the intended one. A sinc pulse meets this criterion. In practice, raised
cosine filters are used to implement this with controlled ISI and manageable bandwidth.
6. Correlative Level Coding and Line Codes
Correlative coding introduces controlled ISI to reduce bandwidth. Examples include
duobinary and modified duobinary coding. Line coding converts binary data into specific
voltage waveforms to ensure synchronization and reduce DC components. Common line
codes are NRZ, RZ, Manchester. These codes improve detection and transmission reliability.

7. Baseband M-ary PAM Transmission and QAM

M-ary PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) transmits data using multiple amplitude levels,
increasing bit rate. QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) uses both amplitude and
phase to encode information, providing higher data rates. M-ary schemes offer spectral
efficiency but require better SNR to distinguish levels, increasing system complexity.

8. Eye Pattern in Baseband Transmission

An eye pattern is obtained by overlaying multiple bits in a data stream and is used to
analyze signal quality. A wide open eye indicates good signal integrity with minimal ISI. Eye
closure indicates timing errors and noise. Eye height and width help in evaluating timing
jitter, noise margin, and ISI, making it a critical diagnostic tool.

Unit 4: Passband Transmission (10 Marks Answers)

1. Passband Transmission and Its Advantages

Passband transmission shifts baseband signals to higher frequencies for transmission over
long distances and wireless media. It enables frequency division multiplexing (FDM),
efficient use of spectrum, better antenna design, and separation of channels. It is essential
for RF, satellite, and mobile communications.

2. Passband Transmission Model and Gram-Schmidt Procedure

The model includes signal modulation, transmission through a channel, and demodulation.
Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization converts a set of signals into an orthonormal basis. This
simplifies signal representation and detection, reducing inter-symbol interference and
allowing efficient signal space design for minimum error.

3. Geometric Interpretation of Signals

This approach represents signals as vectors in an N-dimensional space. It helps in
visualizing signal separation and distance, which is critical for minimizing probability of
error. Euclidean distance between signal points determines BER. Used extensively in
designing constellations like QAM and PSK.

4. Bank of Correlators in Noise

A bank of correlators consists of matched filters each corresponding to a possible signal.
The correlator output measures similarity between received signal and stored reference. In
noisy environments, it selects the signal with the highest correlation, reducing detection
errors.

5. Correlation Receiver and Probability of Error

A correlation receiver uses template matching to detect known signals. It computes
correlation with expected signal patterns and chooses the best match. BER depends on
noise level and minimum distance between signals in signal space. More distance means
better noise immunity.

6. Detection with Unknown Phase

Non-coherent detection is used when phase information is not available. Techniques like
envelope detection for ASK or differential encoding for DPSK are employed. While less
accurate than coherent detection, it is simpler and useful in fast-changing channels like
mobile networks.

7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Passband Transmission

Advantages:
- Suitable for wireless/RF communication.
- Allows multiplexing.
- Efficient bandwidth use.
Disadvantages:
- Complex circuitry.
- Sensitive to phase and frequency errors.
- Requires synchronization.

8. Baseband vs Passband Transmission

Baseband:
- Simpler.
- Limited range.
- Used in wired systems.
Passband:
- Complex but long-range.
- Used in RF/wireless systems.
- Better spectrum utilization.

Unit 5: Digital Modulation Schemes and Information Theory (10 Marks Answers)

1. Coherent and Non-Coherent Modulation Schemes

Coherent schemes require carrier phase synchronization (e.g., BPSK, QPSK). They are more
spectrally efficient. Non-coherent schemes (e.g., FSK, DPSK) do not need phase info and are
simpler to implement. Choice depends on channel conditions and required performance.

2. ASK, BPSK, BFSK, QPSK, DPSK Techniques

- ASK: Amplitude changes with data; simple but noise-sensitive.
- BPSK: Phase shift of 180° for binary data; robust against noise.
- BFSK: Uses two frequencies; better noise performance than ASK.
- QPSK: Encodes 2 bits per symbol with 4 phase shifts.
- DPSK: Phase difference carries data; no need for reference phase.

3. Power Spectra and Bandwidth Efficiency

Power spectral density (PSD) describes how signal power is distributed across frequencies.
Bandwidth efficiency is the bit rate per unit bandwidth (bps/Hz). Higher-order modulations
(QAM, QPSK) provide better efficiency but require higher SNR.

4. Entropy, Mutual Information, and Channel Capacity

- Entropy (H): Average information content.
- Mutual Information: Shared information between input and output.
- Channel Capacity: Max data rate with reliable communication, given by Shannon's
theorem: C = B log2(1 + SNR).

5. Shannon-Fano and Huffman Encoding

Both are source coding techniques to reduce redundancy:
- Shannon-Fano: Top-down method; not always optimal.
- Huffman: Bottom-up method; optimal prefix-free codes.
Used in data compression (e.g., ZIP, MP3).

6. Information Theory and Digital Communications

Information theory sets the foundation for compression, coding, and capacity. It helps in
designing efficient and reliable communication systems. Shannon’s theory guides channel
coding, error correction, and system design.

7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Modulation

Advantages:
- Robust to noise.
- Supports error correction.
- Efficient bandwidth use.
Disadvantages:
- Higher complexity.
- Requires synchronization.
- More power consumption in some schemes.

8. Comparison of Digital Modulation Techniques

- ASK: Simple but noise-sensitive.
- BPSK: Good noise performance.
- QPSK: Higher data rate than BPSK.
- BFSK: Reliable in noisy channels.
- QAM: Combines amplitude and phase; high data rate but complex.
Selection depends on application, channel quality, and device capability.