CMP 011

History of Computer
Computers of today are quite powerful, sophisticated and very fast. They were
not so in their earlier stages. In fact they have traveled a long distance from
primitiveness to sophistication. They took many years to reach the present stage.

Ancient people used pebbles for counting and made scratches on the wall to
keep track of their belongings. For example, ten scratches on the wall represented ten
goats that they had. After that two new scratches nearby used to be clear indication of
two new additions made in the fleet.

As they became bit wise, they made use of the objects nearby them and made
counting and calculating devices. For example, long time ago they collected wires, wood
and beads from here and there and made the first counting device, called Abacus. As
the time passed, many computing devices got developed. After lot of advancements and
improvements calculating devices reached the stage of modern computer. Ever since
the birth of abacus, calculating devices have been making continuous progress. A brief
historic development of these devices is given below.

Abacus

The historical development of computing can be linked with Abacus which is a

device consisting of rods upon which beads can be moved up and down. It was mainly
used for counting.

The abacus has been in use for nearly 3000 year B.C. It was later developed by
the Chinese and still in use in some part of the world today.

Napier's bones

John Napier was a Scottish mathematician who lived from 1550 to 1670. He
worked for more than 20 years to develop the theory of tables, which became quite
famous, with the name Logarithmic Tables.

Towards the end of his life, John Napier devised set of rods, called Bones,
because they were constituted from bones. Digits were printed on them. Napier's rods
essentially transformed the process of complex multiplication and division into much
simpler tasks of addition and subtraction.
Slide Rule

Slide rule was once-upon-a-time favorite mechanical device that was quite often
used for performing complex and complicated calculations at very fast speed. Using
slide rule mathematical, statistical and engineering calculations are performed with
ease. For doing all these calculations, it makes use of logarithmic tables that were
invented by John Napier in 1617.

The slide rule consists of a pair of finely divided fixed scales. Most often, outer
pair of scales is fixed and inner scale is movable. A sliding window called cursor is put
around the scales.

In slide rule, all the calculations are done by sliding the scales and the cursor. This
is the reason why it derives its name slide rule.

Before the advent of pocket calculator, slide rules were quite popular. From 1950
to 1960, they were seen as the best available tool for calculations. When computers
became popular and pocket calculator became cheap, their use became limited.

Pascal's Calculator

Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physist and theologian. He was the
son of tax collector. His father had to do lot of additions and subtractions, in which he
quite often made errors.

At the age of 18 in the year 1840 Pascal started developing a mechanical device,
using which arithmetic operations like addition and subtractions could be done very
easily. The first operating model was introduced in 1942.

This machine was called Arithmetic Machine. Later Pascal created 50 more
machines, over next 10 years. Later this machine was called, Pascal's Adding Machine.

Pascal's adding machine was built on a brass rectangular box where, a set of
notched dials moved internal wheels, in such a way that a full rotation of a wheel
caused the wheel, at the left to rotate one tenth. Although the first prototype contained
only 5 wheels but later, units with 6 and 8 wheels were also made.

The wheels of the machine moved only clock wise and were designed to perform
additions. Subtraction was done by applying a cumbersome technique, based on
addition of the nine's complement.

The biggest disadvantage of this machine was that operations like multiplication,
division etc. could not be done through it.
Leibniz’s Calculator

A German mathematician, whose name was Gottfried Leibniz, improved the

adding machine, developed by Pascal. This new machine, which he constructed in year
1671, was able to multiply and divide as well. The concept of multiplication was to
repeatedly add the same number to itself. Instead of using wheels in his machine, he
used stepped cylinders, each with nine teeth of varying lengths.

Jacquard's Loom

A French weaver Joseph Jacquard invented an automated loom in 1804. This

loom used punched cards to produce patterns and designs on cloth. The weaving action
of this machine was totally governed by the absence or presence of holes in the cards. In
other words, you can say that the entire operation was under a program's control. With
this, historic invention of punched cards, the era of storing and retrieving information
started that greatly influenced the later inventions and advancements of computing
devices.

Babbage’s Difference Engine

In year 1822, Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics developed a machine

called Difference Engine. This machine was able to calculate logarithms up to high
precision degree. It had capability to calculate different functional values and could also
calculate polynomials by finite difference technique.

Babbage’s Analytical Engine

Charles Babbage started working on a device named Analytical Engine in year

1833. This Analytical Engine was in real terms the ancestor of modern computer.

The Analytical Engine was able to perform all four arithmetic operations. It was
conceptualized around processor, storage area, memory and input/output devices. The
two revolutionary inventions in Analytical Engine were comparison and modification of
stored information. This was the first invention, which enabled machine to compare
quantities and then decide which of the instruction sequence to follow. Due to lack of
technology at that time, it was not possible for Babbage to build such an engine. Its
design remained conceptual.

His great invention of Difference Engine and Analytical Engine earned Charles
Babbage the title Father of Modern Computers – a suitable tribute to him.
Hollerith’s Machine

The dream of Charles Babbage was fabricated by an American, a statistician,

named Herman Hollerith. In year 1886 he fabricated the first electromechanical
punched card tabulator that used punched cards for input, output and instructions. This
machine was used by American department of census to compile their 1880 census data
and was able to complete compilation in 3 years, which earlier used to take around 10
years.

Mark-1

Prof Howard Aiken (1900-1973) of U.S.A constructed an electromechanical

computer named Mark-1 in year 1943. Mark-1 had capability to multiply two 10-digit
numbers in 5 seconds, which was a record at that time. Mark-1 was the first machine,
which could perform according to preprogrammed instructions automatically without
any manual interference. This was the first operational general-purpose computer.

ENIAC

The defense department of USA was supposed to design advanced weapons,

missiles and aircrafts.

For this, they had to do lot of complex calculations. This process was not only
time consuming but was error prone also. To do this work efficiently, in 1946, scientists
of Pennsylvania University designed a new computer.

This computer was 20 feet long and 40 feet high. It consumed as much electric
power as was sufficient to light a small city. But this machine was much faster than any
earlier machine. It was capable of doing more than 5000 additions, subtractions or 350
multiplications and divisions in a second. This machine was called ENIAC. ENIAC is
acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. The biggest problem with
this computer was that all the instructions were hardwired within the computer.

Thus making modifications in instructions was a very difficult task. This problem
was removed from the computers, which came after this computer.

This machine performs complex calculations in less than half a second.

EDVAC

EDVAC is acronym for Electronic Discreet Variable Automatic Computer. It was

designed and created in 1950 in Moore school of America. It was capable of taking
instructions from external resources. Data and instructions, both could be provided to it,
using punched cards. Thus problem of hardwired instructions, which was there in ENIAC,
was solved in this computer. Its performance was much better than earlier computers.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

A generation refers to the state of improvement in the product development

process. This term is also used in the different advancements of new computer
technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more
advanced than the previous generation before it. As a result of the miniaturization,
speed, power, and computer memory has proportionally increased. New discoveries are
constantly being developed that affect the way we live, work and play. Each generation
of computers is characterized by major technological development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and
more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.

First Generation Computers (1940s)

First generation computers were voluminous in size. They were made using
vacuum tubes. Vacuum tube was a fragile glass device that could control and amplify
electronic signals. First generation computers used the idea of execution of stored
programs.

Some of first generation computers are ENIAC, EDSAC, EDVAC, LEO and UNIVAC 1.

Following were the characteristics of first generation computers:

 Their size was very large.

 Speed of instruction-execution was very slow.
 Generate enormous heat.
 Switching through vacuum tubes was not reliable.
 Heavy air conditioning was required.
 Only scientists and engineers were able to use these computers and that too in
limited areas due to their high cost.
 They needed a constant maintenance, which was very expensive.
 Programming was generally done in machine language.

Second Generation Computers (1950s)

Transistor was invented as a smaller and more reliable successor of the vacuum
tube. Although transistor was invented in 1948, its application in computers started in
the year 1958. The transistor was more reliable, less expensive, and smaller than the
smallest vacuum tube. It consumed very little power and produced much less heat.

A transistor is also called a solid-state device. It is made of a material whose

principal part is silicon element. It is also called semiconductor device. It performs all the
functions of a vacuum tube i.e. switches circuit on and off at a very high speed. Second
generation computer made use of transistors.

Apart from the above listed advantages, the second generation computers used
better devices such as card readers, printers etc. This generation is also important from
the point of view of language development and use. First generation computers used
machine level language or low-level language i.e. program was written directly in binary
digits, which was very cumbersome and tedious. Later the development of Assembly
Language helped the programmers to some extent. The high level language FORTRAN
was also developed for this generation of computers. This development brought the
computers very close to man and made it a very popular machine. Some of the names of
second generation computers are IBM 7000 series, UNIVAC III, CDC 1400 series,
Honeywell, ATLAS and LEO mark III.

Characteristics

 Smaller in size compare to first generation computers

 Faster in speed
 Consume less power
 Generate less heat
 Programming was done in symbolic language.

Third Generation Computers

The development of integrated circuit was another milestone in the history of

computer science. It was micro electronic technology, in which it was possible to
integrate large number of circuit elements into very small surface area (less than 5 mm
square) of silicon known as Chip. This generation was based on Integrated Circuits (IC)
technology and the computers that were designed with the use of integrated circuits
were called third generation computers.

These computers had better storage devices and improved input / output
devices, such as Visual Display Unit (VDU), Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) and
high-speed line printers. These computers were 10,000 times faster than the first
generation computers and arithmetic and logical operations could be performed in
nanoseconds (1 nano second=10-9 seconds). It was this time, around which major
advancement in the field of hardware as well as software took place. Many useful high
level languages were developed. These computers used operating system. The use of
faster input and output devices enhanced the capabilities of these computers and made
multiprogramming possible, in which a number of programs could be executed
simultaneously by a single processor. Some of the popular computers of this generation
are IBM 360 series and ICL 1900 series.

Characteristics

 Smaller in size
 Faster in speed
 Consume less power
 Generate less heat
 Programming was done in high level language. Multi-programming which allow
programs to be executed concurrently on minicomputer was introduced.

Fourth Generation Computers

The development of microprocessor chip that contains entire central processing

unit (CPU) on a single silicon chip led to the invention of fourth generation computers.
The technology that was used in third generation computers in the form of Integrated
Circuit (IC) was known as Small-Scale Integration (SSI). This IC contained about ten to
twenty transistors on it. Later, the Medium Scale Integration (MSI) was developed, in
which it was possible to assemble up to hundred transistors on a single chip.

After this, came the era of Large-Scale Integration (LSI) in which, it was possible
to integrate 30,000 transistors on a single chip. Efforts were made and now the era of
VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) has come, in which millions of transistors can be
assembled on single chip. Current generation computers are fourth generation
computers and are making use of VLSI chip. This has made the size of current computer
very small. Fourth generation of computers can be called microcomputer generation.
The input/output devices used with fourth generation computers are quite advanced.
These devices are optical readers, which can transfer the contents of CD within few
microseconds to the computers. This generation’s computers are compact, faster, and
more reliable.

Characteristics

 Faster in speed
 Consume less power
 Generate less heat
  Programming was done in high level language

Fifth Generation Computers

Till fourth generation computers, the main stress was on hardware technology.
Though these computers are faster, more accurate, reliable, smaller in size and very
cheap, still they lack thinking power. The fifth generation computers will have thinking
power and capability to make decisions like human beings, and may prove better than
man in certain aspects. They will be more useful in the field of knowledge processing
rather than in data processing.

In fact fifth generation computers are dreams of Japanese scientists. They have
started work in this direction few years ago. The concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is
being used in these computers. These computers will have Knowledge Information
Processing System (KIPS) rather than the present Data/Logic Information Processing
System. Japan has chosen the PROLOG (Programming in logic) language as its operating
software and plans to have the final machine, which will talk with human beings, see
and deliver pictures and hear man’s natural language.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
The type of input that computer accepts, decides its nature and capabilities and
the type of computation that it will be able to perform. For example, some of the
computers accept input in the form of signals. On the other hand, majority of computers
take input in the form of digits. Some computers accept input in both the forms i.e. in
the form of digits and signals. On the basis of input type, computers have been classified
into following three categories:

1. Analog computers

2. Digital Computers

3. Hybrid computers

Analog Computers
Let's first understand what is signal. Signals can be defined as continuous flow of
physical identity. Temperature, pressure, water level, speed, voltage, current etc. are
few examples of signals.
 Those computers, which operate upon signals (by accepting temperature,
pressure, speed etc. as input) are called analog computers. Speedometer, thermometer,
barometer, voltmeter, ammeter etc. are few examples of analog computers.

To understand the concept of analog computers, let's take the example of

speedometer, which is used in scooters and cars. It makes use of cable. One end of the
cable remains in contact with the wheel of the vehicle. The other end of the cable is
inserted in the speedometer. When the wheel rotates, cable also rotates. Cable's
rotation is thus passed to the internal assembly of the speedometer, which in turn
rotates the needle on a calibrated scale. Thus when the vehicle moves, its speed gets
displayed on the speedometer's scale.

Analog computers are used for a wide variety of industrial and scientific
applications that require the processing of continuous data.

Digital Computers
In computer terminology, alphabets, numbers, special characters etc. are called
digits.

They process data that is represented in the form of discrete values (eg 0, 1, 2, 3 …) by
operating on it in steps. Discrete values occur at each step in the operation.

Those computers, which accept digits (like name, age, e-mail address etc.) as
input, are called digital computers. Computers that we see in offices, shops, hotels etc.
are digital computers.

Digital Computer performs its computation by manipulating discontinuous

numbers and letters, which represented by bits.

Hybrid Computers
Those computers, which accept both types of inputs i.e. signals and digits are
called hybrid computers. For example, computers placed in ICU (Intensive Care Unit) are
examples of hybrid computers. They accept heartbeats of the patient (signals) as input.
They also accept instructions that need to be carried out (digits).

Similarly computers placed in atomic reactors (taking radioactivity level and instructions
as input) and mines (which take carbon monoxide level and instructions as input) are
other examples of hybrid computers.
 CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE
Digital computers can be classified into various categories, on the basis of their sizes.
When we say, size of the computer, it refers to multiple factors like, size of the memory,
number of terminals that can be connected to the computer, storage capacity of the
hard disk, type of processor used in the computer etc. Digital computers are generally
classified into following categories:

1. Microcomputers
2. Mini computers
3. Mainframe computers
4. Supercomputers

a. Micro Computers
Microcomputer is the smallest category of computers, in which single microchip
is used for two basic units i.e. ALU and Control Unit. This microchip is often referred to
as microprocessor. Microcomputers are further classified into following categories:

1. Personal computers

2. Laptop computers

3. Tablet PC

4. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

Personal Computers (PC)

Computers that you commonly see these days are examples of Personal
Computers. In short, they are called PC. They mainly comprise of four units i.e. CPU box
called chaises, keyboard, VDU and mouse.

Only one person can work on them at a time, so they are called single user
computer. Originally they were designed and manufactured by IBM. Later, as they
became popular, other manufacturers also started manufacturing similar type of
computers called IBM clones.

Laptop Computers

Laptop computers also fall into the category of microcomputers. They possess
same capabilities and resources that of Personal Computers. In their outward
appearance, Laptop computers look like a briefcase. Upper panel of the briefcase
comprises of LCD screen. Lower panel contains keyboard and mouse arrangement.
Other components and circuitry remain packed inside the briefcase. They are
deliberately designed to be light in weight. They run on chargeable battery, which
resides inside. Due to their size, weight and independence from power (for two to three
hours) people carry them while traveling in car, train or airplane and work on them.

Tablet PCs

Tablet PC is the latest development in the field of computers. Note that it looks
like laptop computer with many more enhancements and additional facilities packed,
within same space.

Display system of Tablet PC, vertically rotates, by 1800. When rotated, it starts
accepting input through a special light pen, called light pen. Whatever is written on
Tablet PC's screen, with the pen, in natural handwriting, is taken as input. Thus writers
need not write their articles on paper and then give it to typists to get its formatted
copy. They can directly write the text on Tablet PC's screen, using light pen.

Tablet PC will recognize their handwriting and save the document in predefined
format, in desired font, as if typist typed it on computer. Similarly artists can now draw
figures, directly on Tablet PC's screen and color them too. Light pens also have provision
for removing written text or drawing lines, as if natural eraser was being used for
making corrections.

Some of the Tablet PCs also accept voice input, through microphone. Whatever is
spoken in front of them is converted into text file.

Personal Digital Assistants (PDA)

Personal Digital Assistants are very small computers that fit within a palm. They
are often of the size of scientific calculator. This is the reason, why they are also called
Palmtop computers. They are mostly used for storing addresses, telephone numbers,
maintaining personal appointments etc. They can also be connected to higher range
computers either through cable or wireless link, for the exchange of data and
information.

b. Minicomputers
Minicomputers are relatively larger and faster computers. Apart from single user
environment, they also support multi user environment. They are generally used for
automating those applications, which are large in size, require fast processing
capabilities and demand for resource sharing among multiple users. They are used for
special purpose or smaller scale general purpose work. Examples are DEC’s VAX range
and IBM’s 400 range.

Main characteristics of minicomputers are described below.

 They are built, using high performance and high capability processors.
 Memory size in such type of computers is generally very large.
 They support multiple terminals, which may range from 2 to 16.
 Large capacity disks are used in multiple numbers so that the data and programs of
all the users could be put on-line.
 They provide facility to connect multiple printers.
 They possess the capability of performing computer network related major
operations.

c. Mainframes
Mainframes fall into next higher category of computers. Their internal architecture
and circuitry remains different from minicomputers. They use specially designed
proprietary circuits instead of just single microprocessor as their CPU. Their circuitry
promotes higher connectivity, faster throughputs and large data processing
capabilities.

Due to proprietary circuitry, mainframes become quite big in size and provide facility
for connecting minicomputers and microcomputers with them. Few characteristics of
mainframes are listed below.

 They possess the capability of addressing larger memory sizes than that of
minicomputers.
 They also support larger capacity disks like optical disks etc.
 Their terminal connectivity can go as high as 256 or beyond.
 They possess large number of application libraries that provide great help to
developers in developing useful applications.

DEC 20, IBM 370 series are the examples of few mainframes. IBM (USA) is the largest
manufacturer of Mainframe computers.

d. Supercomputers
Supercomputer is the largest category of computers. They use multiple CPUs for
processing the data and executing the instructions. While performing a task through
Supercomputer, the complete task gets divided into multiple independent tasks. Each
 CPU takes up individual task and completes it in parallel. This methodology of
processing is called parallel processing.

Due to parallel processing, Supercomputers become capable of processing large

volumes of data at very fast speed. They process multi million to few trillion
commands per second. Applications like weather forecasting, nuclear weapon design,
projection system modeling, aero modeling etc., which require tremendous processing
capabilities, can be very well executed on Supercomputers. CRAY, XMP 24 and NEC
500 are few examples of Supercomputers.

CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE
a. Special Purpose Computers: These are designed for a specific job only to solve
problem of a restricted nature. The program of this aspect of computer is in-built
into the machine permanently. Examples are computer designed for use in petrol
pumps and weapons guidance systems. Also special purpose computers are used for
solving navigation problems in aircraft and ships.
b. General Purpose Computers: These are designed to solve a wide variety of
problems. They can be adapted to perform particular task or solve problems by
means of specially written programs such as payroll accounting, inventory and sales
analysis.

COMPUTER SYSTEM
A Computer System can be divided into two, which are Hardware and Software.

HARDWARE

The physical devices—both electronic and mechanical—that make up the

computer are called hardware. Hardware is any part of the computer you can touch.
Input and output devices, the system case, cables, and networking devices are all
examples of hardware.
SOFTWARE
Software, also called a program, consists of a series of related instructions,
organized for a common purpose, that tells the computer what tasks to perform and
how to perform them.
The set of instructions that enable a computer to perform specific tasks is
generically called a program or software. These instructions tell the computer’s
hardware components what to do; without a program, a computer could not do
anything at all. When a computer uses a particular program, it is said to be running or
executing that program.
Software is a generic term for organized collection of computer data and
instructions. It is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the hardware
components of a computer and to accomplish specific tasks. In other words, software
tells the computer what to do and how to do it. For example, software instructs the
hardware what to display on the user’s screen, what kinds of input to take from the
user, and what kinds of output to generate. Thus, software communicates with the
hardware by organizing the control sequences, and the hardware carries out the
instructions defined by the software.
A computer needs to be instructed to perform any task. These instructions are
given in the form of computer programs, which are written in computer programming
languages. A program controls the activity of the processor. The moment the hardware
(processor, memory, etc.), acts as per the instructions of a program, the program is said
to be in running or executing state.
A set of programs, which are specifically written to provide the user a precise
functionality like solving a specific problem is termed as a software package. For
example, word processing software package provides functionality to the computer so
that it can be used to create text documents like letters and mailing lists. Similarly, an
image processing software package assists a user in drawing and manipulating graphics.
The two categories of software are system software and application software.
1. System software
System software is any program that controls the computer’s hardware or can be
used to maintain the computer in some way so it runs more efficiently.
System software consists of the programs that control or maintain the operations of the
computer and its devices.
System software can be subdivided into firmware, operating system, utility, database
management system and translator.
a. Firmware: Firmware is used to directly control hardware devices, such as keyboards,
hard drives, and memory cards. Firmware can also be found outside of a personal
computer; the programs that control your TV remote and cell phone would be
considered firmware as well. Firmware is embedded on microchips and placed on the
device that it controls.
b. Operating system: An OS tells the computer how to use its own components. An
operating system is essential for any computer, because it acts as an interpreter
between the hardware, application programs, and the user.
An Operating system can be defined as an intermediary between the user and computer
hardware.
An operating system is a set of programs that coordinates all the activities among
computer hardware devices. It provides a means for users to communicate with the
computer and other software.
Examples of operating systems are Microsoft’s Windows, Unix, Android, Ubuntu, Linux.
When a user starts a computer, portions of the operating system are copied into
memory from the computer’s hard disk. These parts of the operating system remain in
memory while the computer is on.
Operating modes of an Operating System
There are three operating modes of an operating system:
i. Single-User Operating System: These are programs that enable only one user to
execute only one task at a time on the computer e.g MS-DOS.
ii. Multi-User and Multi-tasking Operating System: these are programs that enable
more than one user to execute their unique task on the computer concurrently using
terminals e.g OS/2.c
iii. Network operating system: It allows computers to communicate and share files and
device resources across a network while controlling network operations and
overseeing the network’s security.
c. Utility: also called service programs are systems programs that provide a useful
service to the user of the computer by providing facilities for performing common
tasks of a routine nature.
Common types of utility programs are Sort, Editors, Tracing and Debugging, File
Copying, File Maintenance and Dump.
d. Database Management System (DBMS): This is a collection of programs that enables
users to create and maintain a database. The DBMS is a general-purpose software
system that facilitates the processes of defining, constructing, manipulating, and sharing
databases among various users and applications.
2. Application Software
Application software consists of programs designed to make users more
productive and/or assist them with personal tasks.
This is designed to solve users’ problem rather than concentrating on the system,
these helps in performing various job applications for example payroll. Application
software can be further categorized into two:
a. Users Application Programs
b. Application packages