NUCLEAR PHYSCIS &

RADIOACTIVITY
Nuclear Physics
Nucleus
• Protons and neutrons, together referred as
nucleons.
• A nuclide is represented by 𝐴𝑍𝑋
Z = atomic number = p (no. of protons)
A = mass number = total no. of nucleons = n + p

Types of Nuclei
i. Isotopes: same Z
e.g., Hydrogen

Isotopes Atomic Mass Number Number Number

number number of of of
(Z) (A) protons electrons neutrons
(p) (e) (n)
1
1𝐻
1 1 1 1 0
2
1𝐻
1 2 1 1 1
3
1𝐻
1 3 1 1 2

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 ii. Isobar: same A
e.g.,

Isobars Atomic Mass Number Number Number of

number number of of neutrons (n)
(Z) (A) protons electrons
(p) (e)
40
18𝐴𝑟
18 40 18 18 22 (40 - 18)
40
19𝐾
19 40 19 19 21 (40 - 19)
40
20𝐶𝑎
20 40 20 20 20 (40 - 20)

iii. Isotone: same (A – Z)

e.g.,

Isobars Atomic Mass Number Number Number of

number number of of neutrons (n)
(Z) (A) protons electrons
(p) (e)
16
8𝑂
8 16 8 8 8 (16 - 8)
15
7𝑁
7 15 7 7 8 (15 - 7)
14
6𝐶
6 14 6 6 8 (14 - 6)

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Properties of Nuclei
Size of Nucleus
As the number of nucleons in nucleus increases its
size also increases and relation between its radius and
mass number is
R ∝ A1/3
R = R0A1/3
R0 ≈ 1.2fm

Volume of Nucleus
Volume ∝ R3 (But R ∝ A1/3)
Volume ∝ A

Question Example
Find the nuclear radius compared to the atomic
number.
Illustration
Calculate mass no. of that nucleus whose radius is
half of Ge72.
Solution
r ∝ A1/3
𝑟⁄ 1⁄
2 𝐴 3 1 𝐴
=( ) ⇒ = ⇒A=9
𝑟 72 8 72

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Nuclear Force (Fn)
• The strongest force in the universe.
• Works only between the nucleons.
• Very short range.
• Very much depends on distance
• Independent of charge
• Spin dependent
• It is not a central force
• Nature
i. Attractive – If distance is greater than
0.8fm or above.
ii. Repulsive – If distance is lesser than 0.8fm.

Einstein’s Mass Energy Equivalence

E = mc2

Mass Defect
• Mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of
masses of its constituent nucleons. This
difference is called mass defect.
• If observed mass of nucleus ZXA be M, mass of
proton is Mp and mass of neutron is Mn then mass
defect = Δm = [ZMp + (A - Z)Mn] – M.

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 • If M is taken as mass atom of ZXA instead of
mass of nucleus then
Δm = [Z(Mp + Me) + (A - Z)Mn] – Matom

Binding Energy (Eb)

• Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required
to split it into its nucleons (free).
• ΔEb = Δm.c2
• It is always positive and numerically equal to the
energy equivalent of mass defect (or equal to
the energy liberated when it was formed).

Δ𝐸𝑏
Binding Energy per Nucleon ( )
𝐴
• is more stable than
• For Uranium, binding energy per nucleon is about
7.7 MeV/nucleon and it is unstable.
• Proton is more stable than neutron.

Nuclear Fission
• Splitting of a heavy nucleus (A > 230) into two or
more lighter nuclei when struck by a neutron. In
this process certain mass disappears which is
obtained in the form of energy (enormous

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 amount)
A + n → excited nucleus → B + C + Q
• When U235 is bombarded by a neutron it splits into
two fragments and 2 or 3 secondary neutrons
and releases about 200 MeV energy per fission
(or from single nucleus)
• A proton cannot cause fission.
• The mass defect Δm is about 0.1% of mass of
fissioned nucleus.
• About 93% of released energy (Q) is appear in the
form of kinetic energies of products and about
7% part in the form of 𝛾 – rays.
• Here, momentum is conserved,
so, mava = mbvb + mcvc
• Here, energy and mass both together are
conserved.
200
Energy per nucleon in fission [= ≃ 0.85 𝑀𝑒𝑉]
235

Critical Size (or mass)

In order to sustain chain reaction in a sample of
enriched uranium, it is required that the number of
lost neutrons should be much smaller than the number
of neutrons produced in a fission process. For it the
size of uranium block should be equal or greater than
a certain size called critical size.

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 Reproduction Factor (K)
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
K=
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
Size of Uranium

Critical Super Critical Sub Critical

K=1 K>1 K<1
The chain The chain reaction The chain
reaction will be will accelerate reaction will
steady or resulting in an retard and
sustained (As in explosion (As in ultimately stop.
nuclear reaction) atom bomb)

Nuclear Reactor
•K=1
• For a nuclear reactor, the power released,
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
Power =
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

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Nuclear Fusion
• It is the phenomenon of fusing two or more
lighter nuclei to form a single heavy nucleus.
A + B → C + Q (Fusion)
• The product (C) is more stable than reactants (A
and B).
and mc < (ma + mb)
and mass defect Δm = [(ma + mb) - mc] amu
• Energy released is E = Δm x 931 MeV/amu
• The total binding energy and binding energy per
nucleon C both are more than of A and B.
ΔE = Ec - (Ea + Eb)
• Fusion of four hydrogen nuclei into helium
nucleus-
4(1H1) → 2He4 + 2 +𝛽 0 + 2v + 26 MeV
200
Energy per nucleon in fission [= ≃ 0.85 𝑀𝑒𝑉]
235
26
<< energy per nucleon in fusion [= ≃ 6.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉]
4

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 Radioactivity
Features 𝛼 - particles 𝛽 - particles
Identity Helium nucleus or doubly Fast moving electrons
ionised helium ion (2He4) (-𝛽 0 or 𝛽 − )
Charge Twice of proton (+ 2e) Electronic (- e)
Mass ≈ 4mp, (rest mass of 𝛽)
mp - mass of proton = (rest mass of ele.)

Types of Radioactive Decay

𝛼 – decay
𝐴 𝐴−4 4𝐻𝑒
𝑍𝑋 𝑍−2𝑌
(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
⟶ (𝐷𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟 )
+ 2
𝐴𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎

𝛽 – decay
• The basic nuclear process underlying 𝛽 − - decay
is the conversion of neutron to proton.
n ⟶ p + e- + 𝑣̅
These electrons are produced as a result of
decay of neutrons inside the nucleus.
• Its decay equation
𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍 𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍+1 𝑌 + −1𝛽 + 𝑣̅

• -𝛽 0 always comes out from the nucleus along with

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 antineutrino.
• The basic nuclear process underlying 𝛽 + - decay
is the conversion of proton into neutron.
n ⟶ p + e+ + 𝑣̅
A free proton cannot emit a 𝛽 – particle, but a
proton can.
• Its decay equation
𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍−1𝑌 + −1𝛽 + 𝑣

𝛾 – decay
Equation of 𝛾 – decay :-
(ZXA)* ⟶ ZXA + 𝛾 – photons (or h𝜈)

Number of active nuclei in a sample at desire instant

t,
N = N0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

Number of nuclei, which has been decayed in duration

t,
N’ = N0 – N = N = N0(1 - 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 )

Half Life (Th)

• It is the time during which number of active

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 nuclei reduce to half of initial value.
• If at t = 0 no. of active nuclei N0 then at t = Th
𝑁0
number of active nuclei will be from decay
2
equation N = N0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0
= N0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡ℎ
2
ln 2 0.693 0.7
⇒ Th = = ≈
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

Mean or Average Life (Ta)

• It is the average of age of all active nuclei i.e.,
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
Ta =
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
1
⇒ Ta =
𝜆

• If at t = 0 no. of active nuclei = N0 then number

of active nuclei at t = Ta is
𝑁0
N = N0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡𝑎 = N0 𝑒 −1 = = 0.37N0 = 37% of N0
𝑒

• Number of nuclei which have been disintegrated

within duration Ta is
N’ = N0 – N = N = N0 - 0.37N0 = 63% of N0

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 1 𝑇ℎ 𝑇ℎ
Ta = = = = 1.44Th
𝜆 ln 2 0.693

• Within duration Th ⇒ 50% of N0 decayed and 50%

of N0 remains active.
• Within duration Ta ⇒ 63% of N0 decayed and 37%
of N0 remains active.

Activity of a sample (A or B) (or decay rate)

• It is the rate of decay of a radioactive sample
𝑑𝑁
R=− = N𝜆 or R = R0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡
• Activity of a sample at any instant depends upon
number of active nuclei at that instant.
R ∝ N (or active mass), R ∝ m
• At t = 0, R = R0 then at t = Th
𝑅0
⇒R= and t = Ta
2
𝑅0
⇒R= or 0.37R0
𝑒
• Activity of m gm active sample (molecular weight
MW) is
0.693 𝑁𝐴𝑉
R = 𝜆N = [ ]m
𝑇ℎ 𝑀𝑊
Here NAV = Avogadro number = 6.023 x 1023

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Question Example
How old is a particle rock fossil?
Illustration
In a old rock, ratio of nuclei of uranium and lead is 1 :
1. Half life of uranium is 4.5 x 109 yrs. Let initially it
contains only uranium nuclei. How old is the rock?

Solution
Let present active nuclei of uranium is N then initial
active nuclei is 2N.
1
Present active fraction of uranium =
2
1 1
⇒ = 𝑡/𝑇1/2
2 2
𝑡
or =1
𝑇1/2
or t = T1/2 = 4.5 x 109 yr

Question Example
Comparison of two nuclei half lives.
Illustration
The half lives of X and Y are 3 minutes and 27
minutes respectively. At some instant activity of both
are same, then the ratio of active nuclei of X and Y
at that instant is?

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Solution
A1 = 𝜆1 N1 and A2 = 𝜆2 N2
A1 = A2
0.693 0.693
⇒ N1 = N2
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑁1 𝑁2
⇒ =
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑁1 3 1
⇒ = =
𝑁2 27 9
⇒ N 1 : N2 = 1 : 9

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