Review

Advances in Fabric-Based Pneumatic Soft Actuators for

Flexible Robotics: Design and Applications
Yao Chai 1, Yutong Qin 1, Ziyi Xu 1, Xianhong Zheng 2,* and Hao Jia 1,*

1 Key Laboratory of Eco-Textiles, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
2 School of Textile and Garment, Anhui Polytechnic University, Wuhu 241000, China
* Correspondence: [email protected] (X.Z.); [email protected] (H.J.)

Abstract: As a groundbreaking innovation in the field of soft robotics, fabric-based pneu-

matic soft actuators exhibit substantial advantages over traditional rigid mechanical sys-
tems in terms of adaptability, safety, and multifunctionality. This paper presents a thor-
ough review of the design principles, classifications, and application advancements of
these actuators. By leveraging the intrinsic flexibility and programmability of fabric ma-
terials, these actuators achieve complex and precise motion control through the modula-
tion of internal air pressure. This review investigates the state-of-the-art research progress
in overcoming critical challenges, such as enhancing multidirectional expansion capabili-
ties, optimizing the trade-off between flexibility and driving force, and improving control
accuracy and response speed. Furthermore, the integration of fabric-based actuators with
flexible sensors is highlighted as a highly promising research direction, offering the po-
tential to enhance device intelligence via real-time feedback and adaptive control func-
tionalities. In conclusion, with ongoing advancements in material science, structural de-
sign, and control strategies, fabric-based pneumatic soft actuators are expected to unlock
broader application potentials in domains such as healthcare, wearable technology, and
human–-computer interaction.

Keywords: pneumatic soft actuators; fabric; flexible robotics; reversible Zn metal

Academic Editor: Toshiyo Tamura electrodeposition
Received: 17 April 2025
Revised: 3 June 2025
Accepted: 9 June 2025
Published: 11 June 2025 1. Introduction
Citation: Chai, Y.; Qin, Y.; Xu, Z.; In the rapidly evolving landscape of modern engineering and robotics, soft actuators
Zheng, X.; Jia, H. Advances in have emerged as a groundbreaking innovation. They serve as advanced driving devices
Fabric-Based Pneumatic Soft
in the field of flexible robotics and beyond, capable of inducing material deformation,
Actuators for Flexible Robotics:
Design and Applications. Sensors
motion, and corresponding mechanical responses through a variety of external stimuli
2025, 25, 3665. h ps://doi.org/ such as electrical [1], magnetic, optical changes [2], or internal flow fields [3]. Among
10.3390/s25123665 these, pneumatic soft actuators hold a particularly significant place due to their unique
Copyright: © 2025 by the author.
advantages. They are especially important when designing robots that need to be highly
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi erland. flexible or made from fabric materials. Pneumatic soft actuators can provide gentle yet
This article is an open access article powerful actuation forces, making them ideal for applications where delicate interactions
distributed under the terms and are required, such as in medical or caregiving robots that need to handle fragile objects or
conditions of the Creative Commons human tissues with care. Moreover, their lightweight and compliant nature allows for
A ribution (CC BY) license
seamless integration into fabric-based robotic systems, enhancing the overall adaptability
(h ps://creativecommons.org/license
s/by/4.0/).
and performance of the robots in complex environments. The design and functional im-
plementation of these actuators provide an innovative alternative to traditional

Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 https://doi.org/10.3390/s25123665

Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 2 of 22

mechanical drive systems dominated by rigid structures [4]. Compared with classical mo-
tor or hydraulic drive systems, soft actuators, including pneumatic ones, exhibit signifi-
cant advantages in terms of weight, precision, and environmental adaptability [5], partic-
ularly in confined spaces [6] or environments with specific requirements [7]. The inherent
flexibility of soft materials not only introduces novel design concepts for engineering ap-
plications but also stimulates profound reflection and innovation regarding the design
and operational principles of existing mechanical systems [8].
In terms of diversity and innovative design, the range of soft actuators continues to
expand, encompassing electroactive polymers [9], photo-actuated actuators [10], and ion-
driven actuators [11], each optimized for specific application needs. These designs not
only enhance actuator performance but also significantly broaden their applicability
across various domains [12]. Especially when integrated with sensors [13], the potential
of soft actuators in robotics, adaptive structural design [14], and sensing detection [15] has
been further demonstrated [16]. This integrated approach enables soft actuators to per-
form predetermined movements while simultaneously monitoring and adapting to their
operating environment in real time, thereby playing a pivotal role in automation, medical
devices [17], environmental monitoring, and wearable technology [18].
With the continuous advancement of material science [19], micro- and nano-fabrica-
tion technologies, and intelligent control algorithms [20], the performance and function-
ality of soft actuators continue to improve and expand. Future research will focus on the
development of novel stimulus-responsive materials, innovations in actuation mecha-
nisms, and enhanced compatibility with biological tissues to enable more complex and
precise motor control. Additionally, the multidisciplinary nature of soft actuators sug-
gests that their application prospects in the simulation of biological systems [21], human–
computer interaction [22], and complex operational environments will be even broader
[23], potentially revolutionizing the future development of soft robotics technology.

2. Overview of Soft Actuators

2.1. Principles and Classification of Soft Actuators
Soft actuators, as core components in soft robotics technology, can be classified in
detail based on the external stimuli they respond to. These stimuli include, but are not
limited to, changes in liquid pressure, temperature gradients, electric fields, and magnetic
fields. Each stimulus source endows soft actuators with unique driving mechanisms and
application potential.
(1) Liquid-driven Soft Actuators
Liquid-driven soft actuators typically rely on liquid flow and pressure changes to
achieve movement. The core of such actuators is a flexible yet elastic cavity filled with
liquid (usually oil or water). When liquid is injected or withdrawn from the cavity, the
cavity expands or contracts accordingly, driving the movement of the entire device. The
advantage of this type of actuator lies in its ability to generate significant force and high
energy density, making it suitable for applications requiring high force output, such as
flexible robotic arms or bionic devices [24].
(2) Temperature-driven Soft Actuators
Temperature-driven soft actuators are innovative devices that utilize temperature
changes as a power source. These actuators convert thermal energy into mechanical mo-
tion energy through the thermal expansion effect caused by temperature differences, driv-
ing the soft actuator to perform specific tasks [25]. By taking advantage of the thermal
expansion and contraction properties of materials, temperature changes can cause
changes in the shape, length, or volume of the soft actuator, thereby achieving mechanical
motion. Temperature-driven soft actuators have the advantages of simple structure, fast
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 3 of 22

response speed, and no need for external power sources. They show great potential in
micro-mechanical systems, biomedical devices, and soft robotics. As an environmentally
friendly and pollution-free driving technology, temperature-driven soft actuators may be-
come important driving devices in various application fields in the future, bringing more
innovation and application possibilities.
(3) Magnetic-driven Soft Actuators
Magnetic-driven soft actuators achieve movement through the interaction between
magnetic fields and magnetic materials [26]. These actuators typically contain magnetic
particles (such as ferrite particles), and when the external magnetic field changes, these
particles rearrange, causing the material to deform. The advantage of magnetic-driven
actuators is their simple control and fast response speed, allowing for precise motion con-
trol. Additionally, since the magnetic field can be applied remotely without contact, these
actuators are particularly suitable for environments where direct contact is not possible.
(4) Electric-field-driven Soft Actuators
Electric-field-driven soft actuators (also known as electroactive polymer actuators)
change the shape of polymers by applying an electric field [27]. These actuators are typi-
cally composed of dielectric materials and conductive electrodes. When an electric field is
applied, the a raction or repulsion of charges between dielectric materials causes the ma-
terial to expand or contract. The advantages of electric-field-driven actuators include high
energy efficiency and low driving voltage, making them highly suitable for applications
requiring fine control and rapid response.
In addition, multi-response actuators represent a significant advancement in the field
of soft actuators [28,29]. These actuators are capable of responding to diverse stimuli, in-
cluding electric and magnetic fields, as well as electrical and optical signals. Compared
with single-stimulus actuators, their adaptability and functionality are markedly en-
hanced [30,31]. They can integrate multiple sensing and actuating mechanisms into a uni-
fied system, enabling complex and precise control. As such, they find extensive applica-
tion in robotics, wearable devices, and biomedical engineering. This integration offers nu-
merous advantages. For example, the combination of electrical and magnetic stimulation
enables high-speed response and robust force output [32]. Optical response introduces
non-contact remote control capabilities, thereby expanding the operational range of the
actuator while enhancing safety and user-friendliness [33]. Nevertheless, the development
of multi-response actuators presents several challenges. The design and fabrication pro-
cesses must comprehensively address material selection, structural optimization, and the
integration of multiple mechanisms. Additionally, the control system must be sophisti-
cated enough to coordinate multi-signal inputs and responses effectively [34]. Despite
these challenges, the potential benefits of multi-response actuators are substantial. They
are expected to drive advancements in intelligent multi-functional soft robotic systems,
environmentally adaptive wearable devices, and efficient personalized biomedical de-
vices. Future research should focus on overcoming existing limitations, exploring novel
materials and design strategies, and fully realizing their potential.

2.2. Principles of Pneumatic Soft Actuators

Pneumatic soft actuators are similar to liquid-driven actuators and are one type of
fluid-driven actuators. These actuators adjust the volume of the cavity by controlling the
injection and release of gas, thereby achieving structural deformation or movement. Pneu-
matic soft actuators typically contain one or more inflatable chambers. When gas (usually
air or inert gas) is pumped into the flexible chambers of the actuator, the pressure inside
the chambers increases, causing the chambers to expand. The expansion deformation is
then converted into stretching, bending, twisting, and other motion forms through
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 4 of 22

geometric asymmetry or material anisotropy. Conversely, when the gas is released, the
chambers contract, and the actuator returns to its initial position or generates motion in
the opposite direction.
Therefore, each type of soft actuator has unique advantages and challenges, as illus-
trated in Table 1. Liquid-driven actuators can produce significant force and high energy
density, making them suitable for applications requiring substantial mechanical output,
but they require complex fluid systems and have slower response times. Temperature-
driven actuators are simple, fast, and can operate without external power, making them
ideal for autonomous or environment-powered systems, yet their performance is highly
dependent on ambient temperature and material thermal conductivity, limiting their pre-
cision and reliability in variable environments. Magnetic actuators offer precise control
and fast response with remote operation capabilities, but they need a magnetic field gen-
erator and may interfere with other devices. Electric-field-driven actuators, such as elec-
troactive polymers, provide high energy efficiency, low driving voltage, and fine control
with rapid response, but they are sensitive to environmental factors like humidity and
temperature, and require complex electrical systems. The choice of soft actuator depends
on the application requirements, including force output, response speed, environmental
conditions, and available power sources. Understanding the pros and cons of each type is
crucial for optimizing their use in different fields. The main advantages of pneumatic soft
actuators lie in their flexibility and safety. Compared with traditional motor or hydraulic
drive systems, they are lighter, respond faster, and can work in narrow or hard-to-reach
environments. Additionally, due to the compressibility of gas, pneumatic systems can
provide more precise control while reducing energy consumption and enhancing system
safety.

Table 1. Performance and application comparison table of soft actuators with different driving
modes.

Actuator Type Advantages Disadvantages Applications

- Significant force generation

- Requires complex fluid - Flexible robotic
- High energy density
systems arms
Liquid-driven - Suitable for applications
- Slower response times - Bionic devices
Actuators requiring high force output
- Sensitive to environmental - High-force
(e.g., flexible robotic arms,
humidity applications
bionic devices)

- Performance highly
- Simple structure - Micro-mechanical
dependent on ambient
- Fast response speed systems
temperature and material
Temperature- - No external power source - Biomedical devices
thermal conductivity
driven Actuators needed - Autonomous or
- Limited precision and
- Environmentally friendly and environment-
reliability in variable
pollution-free powered soft robotics
environments

- Requires high-strength
- Applications
- Precise control magnetic field sources
requiring remote
Magnetic-driven - Fast response speed - Potential interference with
control
Actuators - Remote operation capabilities other devices
- Micro-robots
- Tubing-free operation - High cost for large-scale
- Medical instruments
systems
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 5 of 22

- High operating voltages

- High energy efficiency (kV-scale) - Applications
- High control precision - Requires complex electrical requiring fine control
Electric-field-
- Fine control with rapid systems and rapid response
driven Actuators
response - Sensitive to environmental - Micro-robots
- Easy sensor integration factors (humidity, - Flexible sensors
temperature)

- Requires external
compressor systems
- Intrinsic safety - Soft grippers
- Slow response
Pneumatic- - Strong environmental - Wearable devices
- Nonlinear control
driven Actuators adaptability - Rehabilitation
complexity
- Simple and lightweight design robotics
- Potential noise issues
- Gas leakage susceptibility

2.3. Challenges Faced by Pneumatic Soft Actuators

With the continuous advancement of technology, pneumatic soft actuators are ex-
pected to play a key role in more fields, promoting the development of soft robotics and
automation systems. Despite their many advantages, pneumatic soft actuators also face
numerous challenges in design and application, such as control accuracy, response speed,
and durability. Future research may focus on developing new materials, improving pneu-
matic network design, and integrating intelligent sensors to enhance the performance and
application range of pneumatic soft actuators. Currently, pneumatic soft actuators mainly
face the following three challenges:
(1) Challenges of Multi-directional Expansion and Large Deformation in “Balloon-like”
Structures
Pneumatic soft actuators rely on the expansion and contraction of flexible materials
under internal pressure to generate motion, but precisely controlling this expansion and
contraction is very difficult. The nonlinear characteristics of flexible materials increase the
complexity of predicting and regulating their deformation at different pressures. To
achieve directional expansion in a specified direction, the internal structure design must
be precise, which involves complex pneumatic network design and fine manufacturing
techniques to ensure uniform pressure distribution and precise control. Moreover, mate-
rials may experience fatigue and damage when undergoing large deformations, thereby
affecting the durability and reliability of the actuator. Therefore, researchers need to de-
velop new materials and design strategies to enhance the stability and durability of the
actuator while maintaining its flexibility and adaptability.
(2) The Contradiction Between Inherent Flexibility and Driving Force
Although flexible materials can provide soft interaction and good environmental
adaptability, they often lack sufficient rigidity to transmit high driving forces. This con-
tradiction is particularly evident in applications where the actuator needs to perform
heavy-load operations or precise control. For example, in the grasping and manipulation
tasks of soft robots, the actuator needs to provide sufficient force to hold objects firmly
without damaging sensitive surfaces.
(3) Insufficient Control Accuracy and Response Speed
Pneumatic soft actuators encounter challenges in achieving high precision and fast
response, mainly due to the compressibility of gas and the hysteresis of flexible materials,
which typically result in lower response speed and control accuracy compared to electric
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 6 of 22

or hydraulic systems. Gas flow delay and uneven pressure distribution may cause un-
smooth and inaccurate motion, especially in applications requiring rapid and precise con-
trol, such as medical surgeries or precision assembly. Additionally, the nonlinear behavior
and unpredictable deformation of flexible materials further increase the complexity of
control.

3. Overview of Pneumatic Soft Actuators

Since 2010, pneumatic soft actuators have become the focus of many researchers, gen-
erating widespread research interest. Researchers worldwide have successfully devel-
oped and demonstrated various pneumatic soft actuators with innovative structures, sig-
nificantly promoting the development of soft robotics technology. The design diversity of
these actuators is reflected in their structural forms, with some typical designs including
fiber-reinforced structures, elastic chamber structures, corrugated structures, folded or
wrinkled structures, etc. These different structural designs not only expand the applica-
tion range of pneumatic soft actuators but also exhibit unique motion characteristics and
functions, providing customized solutions for specific application scenarios. These re-
search achievements not only demonstrate the deep integration of multiple disciplines
such as material science, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and computer
science, but also provide new ideas and methods for the design and manufacturing of soft
robots.
(1) Fiber-reinforced Pneumatic Soft Actuators
Fiber-reinforced pneumatic soft actuators mainly present anisotropic mechanical
properties by covering or embedding fibers, fabrics or other similar structures on or in the
cavity structure. They have a relatively simple structure, are easy to manufacture and can
provide a large end force. In the 1950s, researchers have successively proposed the con-
cept of fiber-reinforced pneumatic soft actuators, which are also known as McKibben ar-
tificial muscles or pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs) [35]. On this basis, researchers at
home and abroad have conducted in-depth studies on the theoretical modeling, defor-
mation modes and practical applications of fiber-reinforced pneumatic soft actuators.
Kanno et al. [36] conducted multiple studies on the integrated sensing technology of tra-
ditional McKibben artificial muscles. By embedding dielectric elastomer sensors (DESs)
into PAMs, PAM-DES sensor actuators were prepared. Tests on the driving and sensing
performance of this PAM-DES sensor actuator revealed that the presence of the sensor
had almost no impact on the actuator’s performance, with low hysteresis (drift error of
1.6% at 0% strain) and high repeatability (over 1000 cycles), providing a model reference
for the preparation of similar sensor actuators. Abe et al. [37] proposed a new type of
active weaving called “18 Weave”, which is more flexible, lighter and can achieve soft
power support compared to traditional McKibben artificial muscles. The outer diameter
of “18 Weave” is approximately 2 mm. Tests showed that the contraction rate of a single
thin McKibben muscle was 22.5%, while that of “18 Weave” was reduced to 26.5%, with
a displacement expansion of 19.4%, significantly improving the support effect. Addition-
ally, researchers used ethylene propylene diene monomer instead of ordinary rubber tube
materials, significantly enhancing durability and presenting good application prospects
in practical fields. Wang et al. [38] A novel structure of pneu-net actuators is proposed,
which can achieve coupled bending and twisting motions in three-dimensional space by
altering the chamber angle, as shown in Figure 1a. The chamber angle, denoted as α, is
defined and its influence on the actuator’s deformation and motion is investigated
through finite element analysis (FEA) and experimental validation. During the experi-
ments, all other geometric parameters of the actuators are kept constant while only the
chamber angle is varied. Paek et at. [39] have developed a novel direct-peeling technique
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 7 of 22

to fabricate long, thin, and highly deformable microtubes, and established a semi-analyt-
ical model for shape engineering. The optimized micro-tentacles can achieve two full
turns of spiraling with a final radius as small as 185 µm, enabling them to wrap around
and grasp microscale objects (1b). This capability holds significant potential for applica-
tions in biomedicine, particularly in cellular manipulation.

Figure 1. (a) The structure of a pneu-net actuator with oblique chambers (Edge 1 represents the
inclined side of the actuator cavity, edge 2 represents the width side of the actuator, and edges 1
and 2 form the cavity angle) [38]. (b) A schematic diagram of PDMS microtube tentacle actuator.
Unlike the plain microtube (left), the one shape-engineered with a hump (right) can produce a ten-
tacle-like spiraling motion. Fabrication steps can be found in [39].

On the other hand, under high-pressure gas drive conditions, traditional McKibben
artificial muscles are restricted by the mesh fibers, causing radial expansion deformation
and generating linear or curved motion in the length direction. To address this, research-
ers have proposed new improved structures. For instance, Jamil et al. [40] designed a hy-
brid optical fiber sensing soft pneumatic gripper. Previous studies have shown that rigid
optical fibers are suitable for long-distance signal transmission, while flexible optical fi-
bers exhibit be er sensing response capabilities in lateral deformation and are often used
in extreme environments. Therefore, by alternately using rigid and flexible optical fibers,
contact force at specific points can be sensed, and the contact force during deformation
can be controlled using a simple PID controller. Additionally, it can be used to locate op-
tical fibers and prevent out-of-plane deformation of the polymer PneuNet, thereby main-
taining the high actuation performance of the actuator and showing good application pro-
spects in extreme environments. Yi et al. [41] proposed a new type of pneumatic soft linear
actuator, the fiber-reinforced origami robot actuator (FORA). Experiments showed that
when actuated by compressed air, FORA produced linear axial contraction motion. At an
input pressure of 100 kPa, using the original inner cavity, FORA could achieve 50% of the
maximum contraction. Compared with existing McKibben-type actuators, it provided al-
most twice the range of motion, significantly improved force distribution, and signifi-
cantly reduced the driving pressure. Na et al. developed a pneumatically actuated soft
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 8 of 22

actuator capable of axial extension, bending and twisting [42], and fabricated a multi-de-
gree-of-freedom flexible manipulator to demonstrate the potential applications of the
pneumatically actuated soft actuator.
In addition, the motion of soft actuators can also be achieved by embedding reinforc-
ing structures such as fibers into the elastomer. During the manufacturing process, a
group or multiple groups of fibers are wound around the outer surface of the soft cavity,
and the fibers and the actuator are combined into a whole through a flexible matrix such
as liquid silicone rubber. By designing the winding method of the fibers in the pneumatic
soft actuator, the actuator can generate motions such as stretching, rotation, bending, and
spiraling. Polygerinos et al. [43] modeled the flexible fiber-reinforced bending actuator in
2015 and developed an accurate and experimentally verified quasi-static computational
(FEM) and analytical model for a specific type of flexible actuator—the flexible fiber-rein-
forced bending actuator. In the same year, the researchers wound the fibers in a spiral
manner around the outer surface of the soft cavity to achieve the expansion, stretching,
and twisting motions of the pneumatic soft actuator. Changing the spiral angle of the fi-
bers can increase the motion range of the pneumatic soft actuator. Kadir et al. [44] im-
proved the stroke characteristics of the McKibben actuator by using a woven actuator with
a nested structure. The common McKibben actuator only has 20% of the total length of the
actuator stroke limit [45], which is limited in practical applications. To address this, people
have changed the structure of the actuator by weaving and twisting or added additional
structures (such as nested or curved structures) to the actuator to increase its stroke. A
combined telescopic nested structure and woven actuator was used to increase the con-
traction ratio of the actuator. During the testing process, the performance of the nested
woven actuator (NBA) was compared with that of the single actuator (SA), the woven
actuator (BA), and the nested actuator (NA). The results showed that at 350 kPa, the con-
traction rate of NBA was the highest, reaching 45.5%, followed by NA (39.38%), BA
(29.57%), and SA (23.41%). Compared with SA, it can achieve a high stroke with only a
20–30% loss in contraction force, and has good application prospects in practical applica-
tions. Due to the strong pressure-bearing capacity of the fiber-reinforced pneumatic soft
actuator, it is widely used in bionic robots [46], soft manipulators [47], and wearable de-
vices [48], etc.
(2) Elastic Chamber Type Pneumatic Soft Actuator
The motion of the elastic chamber type pneumatic soft actuator mainly utilizes the
non-uniform/uniform distribution of materials (or elastic modulus) in space. The elastic
chamber type pneumatic actuator has been continuously developed in recent years. By
dividing the space inside the chamber, such as bidirectional symmetry along the central
axis or trisection, the actuator can undergo different changes when inflated at different
parts [49] (Figure 2). Some researchers have added rib structures to the chamber to prevent
radial expansion. The straight-through cylindrical elastic chamber is the simplest struc-
ture. Zhong et al. [50] designed a bidirectional symmetrical pneumatic soft actuator. The
researchers used the lost-wax casting process instead of the commonly used soft lithogra-
phy technique to manufacture the fixture, which can achieve any shape of internal channel
by eliminating the need for lamination. The wrinkled channel design consists of uniformly
distributed ribs, shown in cyan, and the embedded hollow parts are shown in yellow. This
design is beneficial for grasping because it has high curvature, minimal radial expansion,
and remains compliant during the driving process. This design is beneficial for grasping,
with high curvature, minimal radial expansion, and remaining compliant during the driv-
ing process. Jones et al. [51] utilized interfacial flow in elastomers to gradually solidify
them, thereby robustly fabricating monolithic pneumatic actuators whose shapes can be
easily customized to suit applications ranging from artificial muscles to various grippers.
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 9 of 22

The flexibility, robustness, and predictability of this method offer promising prospects for
assembling complex actuators in terms of geometry, materials, and nonlinearity.

Figure 2. Typical fabrication steps of the soft actuator, structure of the optical waveguide and freely
continue bending deformation of the soft actuator. (A) Fabricating the open chamber with a sinus-
oidal shape. (B) Closing the open side of the chamber with an elastomer sheet. (C) A aching the
strain limited layer and winding the reinforced fiber. (D) Encapsulating the two fiber-reinforced
chambers and flexible sensor together. (E) The final soft actuator with bidirectional bending ability
[49].

With the continuous in-depth research on elastic chamber-type actuators, more in-
genious cavity structures have emerged. Li et al. [52] proposed a bamboo-joint-like soft
actuator. In terms of structural design, each “bamboo tube” restricts the radial/circumfer-
ential expansion deformation of the actuator; the “spinal cord” restricts the axial stretch-
ing deformation of the actuator; and the bamboo nodes increase the bending stiffness of
the actuator and enhance the bending effect. Relevant verification tests on this bamboo-
joint-like soft actuator revealed that within the range of P ≤ 50 kPa, the relative error be-
tween the theoretical calculation value and the experimental measurement of the bending
central angle of the soft actuator did not exceed 10%, indicating the structural rationality
of this bamboo-joint-like soft actuator. Inspired by octopus tentacles, Xie et al. [53] at-
tempted to design a unique conical soft actuator. Compared with traditional cylindrical
actuators, conical actuators exhibit a wide range of bending curvatures and greater flexi-
bility. Experiments demonstrated that by selecting an appropriate cone angle, the suction
cups of the conical actuator can grip and move on a wide range of surfaces: flat, non-flat,
smooth, or rough. Additionally, by optimizing the suction cup size and pa ern of differ-
ent arm cone angles, the overall grasping performance of the actuator can be significantly
enhanced. The success of this experiment provides new design ideas for the creation of
the next generation of soft actuators for grasping various objects of diverse shapes.
However, direct-type pneumatic chambers tend to undergo significant expansion de-
formation under high-pressure gas or fluid drive. To limit the radial deformation of pneu-
matic soft actuators and improve their driving performance, researchers have conducted
a series of explorations. Mosadegh et al. [54] designed a pneumatic soft actuator composed
of a series of independent and interconnected chambers. The soft robot is inflated and
driven through a “gas network” (a pneumatic network composed of small channels in the
elastic material), which allows it to produce complex movements with simple control.
However, the movement speed is relatively slow at present, so based on this, the research-
ers designed a new gas network that reduces the amount of gas required for inflation,
thereby improving the driving speed. Gunawardane et al. [55] proposed a new soft pneu-
matic actuator (SPA) composed of a series of cavities with the same helical angle, capable
of simultaneously generating bending and twisting movements. The thin-walled hermetic
spiral actuator is directly manufactured using 3D printing without any post-processing.
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 10 of 22

Experiments show that, under the same pressure input, this spiral actuator has a higher
mechanical output compared to regular bending actuators. It maintains a certain flexibil-
ity and can be used to grasp objects with complex shapes. Kano et al. [56] proposed a new
type of sheet-like 2D soft robot called Soft Robot Surface (SRS), which is driven by pneu-
matic network bending actuators. During testing, the deformation shape of the SRS was
reconfigured by controlling the applied pressure. Additionally, the bending angle of both
actuators decreased with an increase in the soft surface’s width and thickness. Based on
this, they created a soft gripper capable of grasping objects of various sizes, shapes, and
stiffness, demonstrating the application of SRS. Wang et al. [57] designed a segmented
PneuNets bending actuator-based soft pneumatic glove, which is structured according to
the anatomical structure of the human finger. It consists of five segmented PneuNets
bending actuators (SPBAs) made of elastomers, each driving the corresponding finger to
bend. Tests on the passive bending degree and gripping force of human fingers driven by
the glove showed that the design of the soft glove is feasible and has potential for devel-
opment in hand rehabilitation.
(3) Corrugated Structure Pneumatic Soft Actuators
Corrugated structures generally exhibit higher stiffness in directions parallel to the
ridge and valley, while maintaining good flexibility in the axial direction. By utilizing the
stiffness characteristics of corrugated structures, pneumatic soft actuators with good
stretchability can be designed. Drotman et al. [58] designed a 3D-printable corrugated
tube pneumatic actuator. This 3D-printed actuator consists of three chambers connected
in parallel, and these chambers rotate around the actuator’s longitudinal axis. This three-
chamber 3D-printed actuator can be widely used in soft grippers for handling fragile ob-
jects or in the legs of soft quadruped robots. By adjusting the geometry, materials, and
pressure, the actuator can be developed to meet the requirements of each application, of-
fering good practical prospects. Kim et al. [59] proposed a soft pneumatic gripper driven
by a tendon-driven soft origami pump. The soft finger module is composed of a soft pneu-
matic actuator, air channel components, and an origami pump. Based on this, the re-
searchers conducted a series of experiments and analyses to evaluate the performance of
the actuator, including motion characteristics, frequency response, blocking force, and the
relationship between pressure and bending angle. The results indicated that the intrinsic
frequency of the pneumatic actuator is about 3 Hz, and the use of tendon-driven principles
and pneumatic actuators for the soft origami pump is feasible. Zhou et al. [60] proposed
an embodiment with position feedback and force estimation for a pneumatic bellows (PB)
actuator, where an internal bellows acts as a position sensor for the PB actuator, and the
external bellows functions as the pneumatic actuator. Experiments found that by control-
ling the input pressure, the pneumatic bellows can generate the desired deformation of
the PB actuator, and the internal conductive bellows will experience a change in resistance
due to deformation. This provides a feasible solution to the sensing challenges in deform-
able soft robots with large resistance changes and structural deformations. Yap et al. [61]
proposed a new technique for direct 3D printing of pneumatic soft actuators based on
fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology. Researchers studied the characteristics of
printing materials to simulate the mechanical behavior of the printed actuators. Testing
of the actuators’ bending ability, output force, and durability showed that the actuators
could lift heavy objects with a high output-to-weight ratio, while also achieving complex
movements, suggesting that 3D printed actuators have potential soft robot applications.
The corrugated structure pneumatic soft actuators share certain structural similarities
with elastic chamber actuators, but their deformation is more concentrated, offering
higher driving efficiency and the ability to generate large-scale movements even under
small strains in the chambers. Therefore, corrugated structure actuators have great poten-
tial for use in soft robotic arms and flexible grippers for large loads.
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 11 of 22

(4) Folded or Pleated Pneumatic Soft Actuators

Folded or pleated structures are commonly seen in everyday life and exhibit high
deformation rates when expanded or folded. By incorporating folded/pleated structures
into the design of soft actuators and driving them with a gas medium, large-scale defor-
mation can be achieved. Kim et al. [62] achieved precise sequential deployment and bend-
ing motion driven by a single fluid input through a dual origami design. The actuator has
good scalability by selectively placing strain-limiting folded layers between small planes
of a fluid network. Additionally, the actuator can be automatically manufactured using
accessible 3D printing technology. Experiments showed that this dual origami flexible flu-
idic bending actuator differs from traditional design methods, mainly focusing on motion
generation, and offers a wider range of materials for use. This provides broader design
ideas for the preparation of small-form-factor soft robots. Li et al. [63] proposed a fluid-
driven origami artificial muscle architecture, using various materials and scales for the
rapid manufacturing of low-cost artificial muscles. Nylon was used for the linear sawtooth
actuators for the skin, and related tests revealed that this linear artificial muscle could
generate about 600 kPa of driving stress (approximately six times the sustainable stress of
mammalian skeletal muscle). This muscle can be programmed to achieve complex multi-
axis movements, offering a new approach to the quick design and low-cost manufacturing
of drive systems.
Actuators enhance a silicone matrix by using materials such as paper or fabric, which
have no stretching properties, and achieve movements such as stretching, twisting, bend-
ing, and swinging through different folding structure designs. Martinez et al. [64] devel-
oped pneumatic soft actuators based on composite materials made of embedded sheets or
fiber structures in elastomers. The experiments showed that these actuators have good
flexibility, a simple structure, lightweight, and easy to drive, making them widely appli-
cable in practical uses. Li et al. [65] designed a pneumatic soft actuator based on the Miura
origami structure. Multiple Miura-folded sheets were connected along their crease lines
to form a space-filling structure, with the tubular units in the center filled with a working
fluid. Kim et al. [66] were inspired by the dual deformation structure of the pelican eel
and created a pneumatic origami actuator with high deformation rates, mimicking the
deformational principles of the pelican eel’s stretchable and foldable framework (Figure
3). Feng et al. [67] developed a foldable structure type soft actuator with variable length.
Drawing inspiration from the unique movement mode of leeches, they constructed a fold-
ing structure for elongation and bending movement pa erns. Characterization tests
showed that the actuator combines both flexibility and rigidity, making it be er suited for
addressing issues that traditional constant-length soft grippers struggle with. This actua-
tor has good prospects for real-world applications. Similarly, soft structures can be de-
signed to create high-performance pneumatic soft actuators based on the folding/pleating
behavior under negative pressure. Oguntosin et al. [68] created an artificial muscle struc-
ture under the soft elastomer actuator (SEA) category, made entirely from soft silicone
rubber. In their study, the performance in terms of shortening speed, strain, and pulling
force was tested. The maximum contraction strain reached 67%, and the maximum con-
traction speed was 0.217 s−1 under zero load conditions.
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 12 of 22

Figure 3. (a) Morphing principle of the pelican eel interpreted by the stretchable forms of origami
fish base. Red lines indicate the pelican eel’s stretchable and foldable frames. A ached: concept of
bioinspired dual-morphing stretchable origami in comparison with conventional origami [66]. (b)
Fabrication of dual-morphing stretchable origami. Repetitive steps of mold assembly and elastomer
filling were conducted to build the architecture of C-channel origami units. A subsequent demold-
ing process was carried out by dissolving the molds in water. The final origami architecture was not
only deployable but also stretchable [66].

Pneumatic soft actuators based on folded/pleated structures have been a hot research
topic in recent years, and their high deformation rates provide a wide range of application
prospects across various fields. However, folded/pleated structures inevitably lead to
stress concentration problems, which may affect the service life of soft actuators. There-
fore, it is important to consider stress concentration in the design process of actuators and
minimize its negative effects as much as possible.

4. Overview of Fabric-Based Pneumatic Soft Actuators

4.1. Principles of Fabric-Based Pneumatic Soft Actuators
Fabric-based pneumatic soft actuators are soft-driven devices that use flexible pneu-
matic chambers made from fabric materials, which achieve mechanical motion through
internal pressure changes [69]. Thanks to the flexibility and designability of the fabric
structure, they can realize complex programmed flexible movements [70]. These actuators
have developed rapidly in the field of soft actuators due to their simple manufacturing
process, low cost, high driving force, and fast response time. They have become one of the
most widely studied and applied technologies. Although fabric materials are not as high-
performance as materials like silicone rubber in terms of tensile modulus, and thus are
not suitable for scenarios requiring extremely high driving forces, they show great
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 13 of 22

potential in environments where the demand for driving force is not high, such as in med-
ical rehabilitation gloves and miniature robotic arms [71]. The textile material characteris-
tics of fabric-based pneumatic soft actuators provide unique advantages in terms of de-
formation and load-bearing capacity, opening new paths for innovative actuator designs.
In addition, the influence of fabrics on actuator performance is substantial, primarily due
to their distinct physical properties and structural configurations. Fabrics can be catego-
rized into three main types: woven, kni ed, and non-woven, each imparting unique char-
acteristics that significantly shape the operational a ributes of the actuators constructed
from them [72].
Woven fabrics are meticulously crafted through the interlacing of warp and weft
yarns, resulting in a highly structured and tightly knit material [73]. This construction
endows woven fabrics with remarkable strength and stability, enabling them to effectively
distribute stress across their surface. Consequently, actuators fabricated from woven fab-
rics exhibit enhanced durability and maintain a stable shape and size during the inflation
and deflation processes [74]. This stability is crucial for the precise control of actuator
movements, ensuring consistent performance. However, the downside of woven fabrics
is their relatively low elasticity, which can restrict the range of motion and adaptability of
the actuators [75]. Moreover, the dense structure of woven fabrics often leads to poor per-
meability, impeding the flow rate of gas within the actuator and consequently reducing
its response speed.
Kni ed fabrics, on the other hand, are characterized by their interlocking loops,
which provide them with exceptional elasticity and flexibility [76]. This inherent flexibility
allows kni ed fabrics to undergo significant deformation in response to external forces,
rendering the actuators highly compliant. Such compliance is particularly advantageous
in applications where the actuators need to adapt to varying working environments and
task requirements [77]. For instance, in rehabilitation devices or wearable robots, kni ed
fabric actuators can conform closely to the human body, offering a comfortable and natu-
ral interaction experience. Despite these benefits, kni ed fabrics are generally weaker in
terms of strength and have limited durability. Therefore, specific measures must be incor-
porated into the design and manufacturing processes to enhance the longevity and ro-
bustness of these actuators.
Non-woven fabrics are created by bonding fibers together using methods like adhe-
sion, friction, or electrostatic forces [78]. The resultant structure is relatively loose, which
bestows non-woven fabrics with excellent air permeability and gas permeability. These
properties are highly beneficial for pneumatic soft actuators, as they facilitate rapid gas
inflow and outflow, thereby significantly improving the actuator’s response speed [79].
However, non-woven fabrics are typically characterized by their poor strength and elas-
ticity, and their durability is generally inferior to that of woven and kni ed fabrics [80].
When utilizing non-woven fabrics for actuator manufacturing, it is imperative to carefully
select the type of fabric and optimize the processing techniques based on the specific ap-
plication scenarios and performance requirements. This approach helps to strike a balance
between air permeability and mechanical properties, ensuring that the actuators meet the
desired functional criteria.
The selection of fabric type and the consideration of its characteristics play a pivotal
role in determining the overall performance of pneumatic soft actuators [81]. During the
design and manufacturing stages, it is essential to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of
the fabric’s elasticity, permeability, and durability [82]. As research in soft robotics and
flexible actuators continues to deepen, the progress in fabric-based pneumatic soft actua-
tors has been significant. Researchers have explored more efficient and precise pneumatic
actuation mechanisms by designing soft actuating components with different structures
and materials and optimizing pneumatic channels and control systems. A research
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 14 of 22

approach combining computational simulations and experimental verification has been

widely used to analyze the working performance and application potential of these de-
vices. These studies have not only advanced the technology of fabric-based pneumatic
soft actuators but also provided a solid theoretical foundation and practical guidance for
innovative applications in related fields. As these actuators are continuously optimized in
design and functionality, they are expected to play an even more critical role in medical
assistance, human–computer interaction, wearable technology, and flexible automation.

4.2. Research Progress on Fabric-Based Pneumatic Soft Actuators

Fabric-based pneumatic soft actuators have become a research hotspot in the textile
and mechanical fields in recent years. Unlike conventional elastomer-based pneumatic
soft actuators that are manufactured through complex and time-consuming molding-cast-
ing processes or expensive 3D printing, fabric-based pneumatic soft actuators can be eas-
ily produced by wrapping a textile shell around a pneumatic chamber or bonding pre-
existing composite fabrics with different anisotropic mechanical properties. Additionally,
fabric-based pneumatic soft actuators naturally inherit the advantages of textiles, such as
lightness, flexibility, compliance, durability, and customization, making them ideal for
human–computer interaction and custom wearable applications. However, the efficient
design and low-cost manufacturing of fabric-based pneumatic soft actuators and soft tex-
tile robots remain long-standing and well-recognized challenges.
To address this actuator, researchers have made different a empts to break through
the limitations of traditional flexible robots in application development. One of the main
challenges for textile-based soft robotics technology is the generation of anisotropic me-
chanics. The anisotropic mechanics of fabric-based pneumatic soft actuators are deter-
mined by the differences in the elastic moduli of the fabrics. Therefore, fabric-based pneu-
matic soft actuators are divided into two parts: a bo om layer and a top layer, sealed in
the middle using stitching or heat-sealing processes. The bo om layer material is defined
as the strain-limiting layer, which requires a large elastic modulus and minimal strain
under load. Typically, woven fabrics are used for the bo om layer due to their structure,
which provides minimal mechanical compliance. The top layer material requires a smaller
elastic modulus and preferred strain in a certain direction. When internal air pressure is
increased in the cavity between the two layers, the difference in elastic moduli causes the
bo om fabric to undergo li le deformation or no deformation, while the top fabric under-
goes significant deformation, causing the actuator to bend toward the side of the bo om
layer. In response to this, researchers have designed pneumatic fabric soft robots based
on “encoded sewing constraint mechanics.” Guo et al. [83] introduced a unique encoded
sewing constraint (ESC) design method for effectively constructing three-dimensional tex-
tile shells with programmed global strain constraints for STRs. During seam formation,
bonding and strain constraints are achieved simultaneously: different types of stitches
represent two different stretch performances, and three monotonic warp-knit fabrics are
bonded together using simple and efficient 2D sewing techniques to form 3D constrained
textile shells. Based on this, researchers developed a series of multifunctional STRs driven
by the ESC method and pneumatics. Experiments show that the unique design of encoded
seams with pre-programmed stretch properties not only allows textiles to construct 3D
constraint shells using simple 2D manufacturing methods but also greatly simplifies the
difficulty in predicting complex 3D deformations. By simply adjusting the stitch charac-
teristics of the seams, high-dimensional programmability of STRs, including shape defor-
mation and expansion sequences, is achieved, which accelerates the application of pneu-
matic fabric soft robots in safe human–computer interaction, customized wearables, and
the prototyping and product iteration of medical rehabilitation devices. Moreover, Tanaka
et al. [84] presented a novel computational design and fabrication method for fabric-based
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 15 of 22

soft pneumatic actuators that use Turing pa erns, inspired by Alan Turing’s morphogen-
esis theory. These inflatable structures can adapt their shapes with simple pressure
changes and are applicable in areas like soft robotics, airbags, and temporary shelters. It
introduces a method to automate this process using advanced numerical optimization to
design and manufacture fabric-based inflatable structures with programmable shape-
morphing capabilities (Figure 4A).
Secondly, due to the lack of simple, mold-based, easily programmable, and modela-
ble prototyping methods, constructing complex pneumatic channels within fabric-based
chambers presents challenges that greatly limit the development of pneumatic actuators
made entirely from fabric. Zhang et al. [85] proposed a new design for a gas-driven soft
robot using a single-piece fabric, leveraging the fabric’s flexibility and resistance to
stretching. They developed a novel pneumatic actuator by embedding air channels within
the fabric, achieving high load capacity and high compliance. At the same time, by adjust-
ing the design of the air channels within the fabric, they achieved diverse deformation
modes. Experiments showed that pneumatic actuators made from soft yet non-stretching
fabric could achieve adjustable working spaces and carry high loads simultaneously. The
actuator’s motion modes are programmable, combinable, and capable of fast response
with low input pressure. Relevant tests revealed that a robot gripper made from three
fabric actuators demonstrated a maximum gripping force of over 150 N and a gripping
range exceeding 350 mm, providing a design and analytical foundation for applying non-
stretching but soft materials to soft robots to enhance their practicality.

Figure 4. (A) a—Embroidery featuring Turing pa ern is designed to facilitate bending after pres-
surization. Tatami fill stitch type is used for this application; b—Structure of inflated tube consists
of an embroidered sheet featuring a Turing pa ern [84]. (B) Design and actuation mechanisms of
the viscose/PET yarn actuator [86].

At the same time, researchers have studied different fiber materials, such as func-
tional fibers and smart fibers, to develop actuators with high response speed, high load
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 16 of 22

capacity, and long lifespan. Artificial muscles have received widespread a ention for their
sensitive responses to environmental changes (such as water or humidity, heat, light, elec-
tricity, and magnetism). Fiber-based artificial muscles have been extensively studied in
soft robotics, energy engineering, and intelligent systems due to their high specific energy
density, simple structure, and flexibility. Peng et al. [86] converted commercial viscose
fibers into highly humidity-sensitive artificial yarn muscles with reversible torsional
stroke. As shown in Figure 4B, artificial yarn muscles were prepared using a top-down
and bo om-up combination, inducing fiber alignment through a heat-stretching process,
followed by twisting and plying to form a double-helix yarn muscle structure. This im-
proved the response performance of viscose fiber artificial muscles. Through various tex-
tile techniques, yarn muscles were expanded into fabric muscles, realizing complex spatial
deformations such as bending, rolling, and twisting. Related tests showed that these yarn
artificial muscles had excellent torsional strokes (1752 cm−1) and maximum rotational
speeds (2100 rpm), comparable to artificial muscles made from carbon-based composites.
Heat-stretching-treated viscose fibers exhibited be er humidity response performance
than original viscose fibers. Fabric muscles, after absorbing water, could achieve rolling.
Similarly, researchers have explored new textile structures inspired by biology to im-
prove the flexibility, stability, and reliability of actuators. Yang [87] et al. proposed an
innovative textile structure design inspired by caterpillars. By combining boucle yarn and
an innovative three-layer kni ed structure, they developed a soft pneumatic actuator
based on a layered textile structure with fast response and large bending drive strain. The
layered structure design and manufacturing method allow the actuator to have a high
deformation capability in the highly elastic region and minimal deformation in the low
elastic region, thereby maximizing the conversion of supplied pressure into effective driv-
ing strain and work output. Tests showed that the prepared actuator could rapidly gen-
erate large bending strain under 50 kPa air pressure, with high power density, good re-
peatability, and durability. They also proposed a new kni ed soft robot inspired by the
Venus flytrap [88]. Using kni ing technology, they formed different loop structures by
varying stitch types and raw materials to integrate sensing performance and specific me-
chanical properties, proposing a cost-effective digital kni ing strategy for rapid program-
ming, manufacturing, and achieving various programmable actuators. Pressure sensors
and tensile strain sensors based on kni ed structures enable environmental sensing and
feedback on robot deformation. Performance tests showed that this soft robot had fast
response and good deformation ability, including high driving strain (1400 m−1) and high
volume power density (212 W·m−3).
The recent advancements in fiber materials and textile structures have significantly
elevated the performance of soft actuators, as evidenced by the aforementioned studies.
These innovations have catalyzed the development of a variety of pneumatic-driven ac-
tuators, each characterized by unique operational a ributes and application potentials. To
elucidate the comparative advantages and limitations of these actuators, the following
Table 2 provides a comprehensive analysis of their performance metrics, focusing on crit-
ical indicators such as drive force, response speed, and deformation.

Table 2. Performance comparison of different types of pneumatic soft actuator.

High-Speed Fabric-Based
Conventional Pneumatic Pneumatic Thin-
Pneumatic Pneumatic Soft
Pneumatic Cylinders Muscle film Actuators
Valve Actuator Actuator
Drive Force (N) 500–5000 100–2000 1–50 100–1000 2–100
20–300%
Stroke/Deformation 10–1000 mm 1–10 mm 1–5 mm 100–400% elongation
contraction
Response Speed (ms) 50–200 100–500 10–50 1–10 80–400
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 17 of 22

Precision Wearable haptic suits,

Robots,
Typical application Microfluidics, control, Smart textiles for
Industrial automation rehabilitation
scenarios sensors injection healthcare, Adaptive
equipment
system ergonomic supports
Reference [89] [90] [91] [92] [93]

5. Summary
Soft actuators, as a pivotal technology in the field of soft robotics, encompass inter-
disciplinary research and development spanning materials science, mechanical engineer-
ing, electrical engineering, and computer science. These actuators emulate the motion of
biological muscles to achieve material deformation, movement, and mechanical re-
sponses, providing a novel alternative to traditional rigid mechanical drives. The design
and optimization of soft actuators necessitate a comprehensive consideration of material
selection, actuation mechanisms, structural design, and control strategies to ensure effi-
cient operation in confined or specialized environments.
With regard to structural design, soft actuators are continually refined to meet di-
verse application requirements. For example, fiber-reinforced pneumatic soft actuators
enhance mechanical performance and range of motion by integrating fibers or fabrics into
their chamber structures. Wave-like and folded/pleated pneumatic soft actuators achieve
large deformations and movements through specialized geometric configurations. In
terms of control strategies, the precision and response speed of soft actuators are critical
performance metrics. Researchers are investigating advanced sensors, control algorithms,
and machine learning techniques to improve actuator performance. Furthermore, the in-
tegration of feedback control systems enables soft actuators to monitor and adjust their
states in real time, ensuring optimal performance under varying operating conditions.
The combination of fabric-based pneumatic soft actuators with flexible sensors rep-
resents a highly promising approach, enabling the creation of highly responsive and mul-
tifunctional systems. Pneumatic actuators exhibit excellent adaptability and compliance,
while flexible sensors provide real-time feedback on strain, pressure, and deformation. By
embedding sensors directly into fabric structures, seamless integration of actuation and
sensing can be achieved, allowing for more precise motion control and expanded func-
tional capabilities. For instance, this synergy could lead to the development of soft robots
capable of sensitive environmental interactions, such as adaptive grippers or wearable
robots that respond intuitively to body movements. Moreover, this integration facilitates
the creation of intelligent systems that dynamically adapt to external forces. In healthcare,
real-time monitoring of muscle or joint activity could enhance rehabilitation devices; in
the automotive industry, it could advance prosthetic or exoskeleton technologies. Thus,
combining fabric-based pneumatic actuators with flexible sensors not only extends the
functional capabilities of these systems but also paves the way for smarter and more adap-
tive devices, revolutionizing robotics and human–machine interaction.
Nevertheless, current flexible pneumatic actuators still encounter numerous unre-
solved challenges. First, system reliability remains inadequate, particularly concerning fa-
tigue, durability, and damage resistance. Due to their operation under repeated large de-
formations, they are prone to fatigue damage and performance degradation. Additionally,
the puncture resistance of soft materials is often insufficient, and once damaged, their ac-
tuation performance may significantly decline or fail entirely. Second, the response speed
and deformation range of flexible pneumatic actuators require improvement. Some actu-
ators exhibit limited deformation and slow response/recovery speeds, rendering them un-
suitable for complex application scenarios. Third, their highly nonlinear behavior and
hysteresis effects render traditional finite element models and control algorithms insuffi-
cient for capturing their complex microstructures and mechanical responses, increasing
Sensors 2025, 25, 3665 18 of 22

the difficulty of simulation studies. For instance, the multiscale properties of fabric-based
materials, fiber-yarn contact friction, and rearrangement during deformation are challeng-
ing to accurately describe using conventional finite element models. Finally, pneumatic
supply remains a major constraint for widespread adoption. Most flexible pneumatic ac-
tuators depend on external air sources, and the required pressure is still relatively high,
limiting their mobility and flexibility. Although various mobile pneumatic supply solu-
tions have been proposed, mature technologies still fall short of fully resolving these is-
sues.
Future research will continue to address the challenges of multi-directional expan-
sion and large deformation, the contradiction between inherent flexibility and driving
force, as well as insufficient control accuracy and response speed. With the development
of new materials, innovative structural designs, improved driving technologies, and ad-
vanced control algorithms, the development of soft actuators and flexible robots will be-
come more diverse and intelligent, bringing new innovations and application possibilities
to various fields. Additionally, with the progress of manufacturing technologies such as
3D printing and flexible electronics, the manufacturing of soft actuators will become more
efficient and cost-effective, further promoting their wide application in areas such as
healthcare, rescue operations, exploration, and human–machine interaction. Additionally,
with the progress of manufacturing technologies such as 3D printing and flexible elec-
tronics, the manufacturing of soft actuators will become more efficient and cost-effective,
further promoting their wide application in areas such as healthcare, rescue operations,
exploration, and human–machine interaction.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.Q., Y.C. and Z.X.; resources, X.Z. and H.J.; writing—
original draft, Y.Q. and Y.C.; writing—review and editing: X.Z. and H.J.; supervision, H.J. All au-
thors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(52303051), Anhui Provincial Natural Science Foundation (2308085ME146), Opening Project of Si-
chuan Provincial Engineering Research Center of Functional Development and Application of High-
Performance Special Textile Materials (Chengdu Textile College) (Project Number: 2024FDAST-
C07).

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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