Cohesion in Discourse: Types and Functions

Cohesion refers to the various linguistic tools and devices that connect different parts of a text, making it
function as a unified and coherent whole. Without cohesion, a text would consist of isolated sentences or
ideas that would lack clarity and logical flow. Cohesion is essential in ensuring that readers or listeners can
easily follow the development of ideas, arguments, or narrative structures in a text. While cohesion deals with
the mechanics of linking sentences and clauses, coherence refers to the overall organization of ideas and the
way the meaning emerges from the text as a whole. Thus, cohesion serves as a building block for ensuring
coherence.
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), cohesion is achieved through specific grammatical and lexical devices
that bind sentences, clauses, and phrases together. These devices include reference, substitution, ellipsis,
conjunction, and lexical cohesion. Each type of cohesion functions differently but contributes to the clarity
and unity of the text1.
1. Reference
Reference involves the use of words (like pronouns, demonstratives, and definite articles) to link one part of a
text to another, either within the text itself or to the context beyond the text. Reference ensures that the
reader understands which elements of the text are being discussed without requiring repetitive mention.
There are several types of reference:
 Anaphoric reference is the most common form, where a word refers back to something mentioned
earlier in the text.
Example:
“Tom studied for his exams. He felt confident afterward.”
In this case, “he” refers to Tom, creating a link between the two sentences and preventing
unnecessary repetition of the noun “Tom.”
 Cataphoric reference is the opposite, where a word refers forward to something that will be
mentioned later in the text.
Example:
“This is the book I was talking about.”
Here, “this” points forward to the noun phrase “the book,” creating a connection even before the
noun is introduced.
 Exophoric reference refers to things outside the text itself, often relying on shared knowledge or
context.
Example:
“It’s raining outside.”
The reference to “outside” depends on the shared understanding between the speaker and listener
about their immediate environment.
In each of these cases, reference helps to reduce redundancy and create a smooth, coherent flow of ideas by
connecting different parts of the text without overloading it with repetition.
2. Substitution
Substitution involves replacing one element of a text with another, often to avoid repetition or to make the
text more concise. There are several types of substitution:
 Nominal substitution involves replacing a noun phrase with a pronoun or another noun.
Example:
“I like the red book. Do you prefer the blue one?”
Here, “one” substitutes for the noun “book,” which avoids repeating the same word.
 Verbal substitution replaces verbs with auxiliary verbs or other forms.
Example:
“He promised to attend the meeting, and he did.”
In this case, “did” replaces the entire verb phrase “promise to attend the meeting,” ensuring that the
text remains concise without losing meaning.
 Clausal substitution substitutes entire clauses with a simpler form.
Example:
“I can’t go, but you can.”
The verb “can” substitutes for the clause “go.”
Substitution helps maintain cohesion by avoiding the redundancy that can occur when the same idea is
repeated using the same grammatical structures. It allows for a more fluid and dynamic text that still
communicates the necessary information.
3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is a form of omission where elements of a sentence are left out because they are understood from the
context. This can occur in different parts of the sentence, such as the subject, verb, or object. Ellipsis functions
similarly to substitution but relies on the reader's or listener's ability to infer the missing information from the
surrounding context.
 Example:
“John likes football, and Peter [likes] tennis.”
The verb “likes” is omitted in the second clause, as it is already implied by the first clause.
 Example:
“I bought the blue shirt, and she [bought] the red one.”
Here, the noun “shirt” is omitted in the second clause because it is understood from the context.
Ellipsis not only makes texts more economical but also creates cohesion by maintaining the necessary
connections between ideas without explicitly repeating parts of the sentence.
4. Conjunction
Conjunctions are used to link sentences or clauses, indicating the relationship between different ideas. They
serve as connectors that signal whether ideas are being added, contrasted, explained, or causally related.
Conjunctions fall into different categories:
 Additive conjunctions add additional information or ideas.
Examples: “and, moreover, furthermore, also.”
 Adversative conjunctions introduce contrasts or opposing ideas.
Examples: “but, however, on the other hand, nevertheless.”
 Causal conjunctions indicate cause and effect.
Examples: “because, therefore, thus, so.”
 Temporal conjunctions indicate time or sequence.
Examples: “then, later, meanwhile, after that.”
By using conjunctions, the writer or speaker guides the reader through the text, signaling how each idea
relates to the others and organizing the information in a way that makes sense.
5. Lexical Cohesion
Lexical cohesion refers to the use of related words or phrases that contribute to the continuity of meaning
within a text. There are several ways lexical cohesion is achieved:
 Repetition: Repeating key words or phrases helps reinforce the main idea.
Example:
“Education is the key to success. Education helps individuals grow and thrive.”
In this case, “education” is repeated to keep the focus on the central theme.
 Synonymy: Using synonyms or near-synonyms helps maintain cohesion while avoiding excessive
repetition.
Example:
“The journey was long and exhausting. The trip took hours to complete.”
 Collocation: Words that are commonly used together can create cohesion, as their association forms
an expected pattern.
Examples: “make a decision,” “take action,” “fast food.”
 Hyponymy: Using a general term to refer to a more specific concept.
Example:
“The fruit basket contained several types of fruit: apples, bananas, and grapes.”
In this case, “fruit” is the hyponym that encompasses more specific types of fruit.
Lexical cohesion is especially important because it operates on the semantic level of discourse, ensuring that
the meaning of the text remains clear and consistent throughout.

Conclusion
Cohesion is essential for creating texts that are not only grammatically correct but also clear and easy to
follow. Through the use of reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion, a text can achieve
the necessary connectivity between its parts, ensuring that the reader can follow the logical progression of
ideas. These cohesion strategies help prevent confusion and maintain the integrity of the text as a unified
whole. While cohesion alone does not guarantee overall coherence, it plays a critical role in creating a
framework that facilitates the logical flow and understanding of the message.

Footnotes
Footnotes

Routledge. ↩
1. Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2014). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (4th ed.).

Coherence in Discourse: Definition and Explanation

Coherence is a fundamental property of effective discourse, referring to the logical organization and
meaningful connection of ideas within a text. Unlike cohesion, which relies on linguistic devices to link
sentences and clauses (such as pronouns, conjunctions, and lexical repetition), coherence concerns the
underlying unity of thought, purpose, and structure that allows readers to interpret and follow the intended
message. It is often considered a cognitive phenomenon, emerging from the interaction between the reader’s
background knowledge and the text’s organization1.
Understanding Coherence
A coherent text is one in which ideas are clearly related to each other and presented in a logically consistent
manner. Coherence enables a reader to move smoothly from one sentence or paragraph to another and to
understand how each part contributes to the overall meaning. While cohesion helps form the structure of the
text, coherence helps make sense of it. As Witte and Faigley (1981) famously stated, "A text may be cohesive
without being coherent"2. For example, a series of grammatically correct and cohesive sentences may still fail
to communicate a unified idea if the logical flow is absent.
Coherence is created not just through language, but through conceptual and structural choices made by the
writer, such as:
 The sequencing of ideas (chronological, cause-effect, problem-solution, etc.)
 The relevance and development of supporting details
 The presence of a clear thesis or central theme
 The consistency of tone, perspective, and argumentation
These aspects help ensure that the text “makes sense” as a whole, even if not every sentence is explicitly
connected through cohesive ties.
Types of Coherence
Several types of coherence are often discussed in discourse analysis and applied linguistics:
1. Topical Coherence
This refers to the way a single theme or topic is maintained throughout a text. A coherent text should
stick to its central subject and avoid introducing irrelevant information. This thematic consistency
helps readers understand the overall message and structure of the discourse. For example, in an
essay about climate change, all paragraphs should relate to aspects of the topic—such as causes,
effects, and solutions—rather than diverge into unrelated areas.
2. Logical or Rhetorical Coherence
This involves the logical relationships between ideas. Transitions and logical ordering help ensure that
one idea leads naturally to the next. Writers often use rhetorical structures such as compare-and-
contrast, problem-solution, or argument-counterargument to guide the reader through their
reasoning. Logical coherence is vital in argumentative or expository texts, where clarity of reasoning is
essential.
3. Temporal or Chronological Coherence
This is crucial in narratives or historical accounts, where events need to be presented in a time-
ordered sequence. When events are narrated out of order without clear markers, the coherence of
the text may be compromised.
4. Cause-and-Effect Coherence
This occurs when the relationship between events or ideas is explained clearly, allowing readers to
understand how one idea or event leads to another. This type of coherence is frequently found in
scientific, technical, and argumentative writing.
5. Pragmatic Coherence
Pragmatic coherence refers to the way a text aligns with social and communicative expectations. It
involves understanding not just the language of the text, but its purpose, audience, and context. For
instance, an instruction manual must be coherent in terms of user expectations—each step must
build on the previous step and anticipate potential confusion.
The Role of the Reader
An essential feature of coherence is that it is not solely a property of the text; it is also a matter of
interpretation. This is because coherence relies heavily on the reader’s ability to use background knowledge,
inferential reasoning, and discourse conventions to connect ideas. A text that appears coherent to one reader
may be confusing to another, particularly if the latter lacks the necessary context or familiarity with the topic 3.
For this reason, effective writers must not only structure their ideas logically but must also anticipate the
cognitive needs of their readers. This involves clarifying assumptions, using guiding questions, repeating key
terms, and signaling shifts in topic or perspective.
Coherence vs. Cohesion
It is important to distinguish coherence from cohesion, although the two are related. A text can be cohesive
without being coherent, if the surface-level connections are present but the underlying logic is missing.
Conversely, a text may be coherent without strong cohesion, especially in spoken language, where listeners
can infer meaning based on context and shared understanding4.
Feature Cohesion Coherence
Concerned with Grammatical and lexical links Logical flow of ideas
Achieved by Pronouns, conjunctions, repetition Organization, relevance, inference
Level Surface-level (linguistic) Deep-level (semantic and cognitive)
Dependent on Language use Reader's interpretation & text structure

1. Taboada, M. (2016). Discourse Markers and Coherence Relations in English. Routledge. ↩

Footnotes

Communication, 32(2), 189–204. ↩

2. Witte, S. P., & Faigley, L. (1981). Coherence, cohesion, and writing quality. College Composition and

↩
3. de Beaugrande, R., & Dressler, W. (2016). Introduction to Text Linguistics. Reprint edition. Routledge.

“Causality and connectives.” Journal of Pragmatics, 88, 105–113. ↩

4. Sanders, T. J. M., & Spooren, W. P. M. S. (2015). How to interpret discourse relations: Commentary on