🟦 Pragmatics: An Overview

🔹 Definition

Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics that studies how people use language in context. It
focuses on meaning beyond the literal interpretation of words and sentences, pragmatics is
concerned with how meaning is shaped by the speaker's intentions, the relationship between
speaker and listener, the situation in which communication occurs, and other contextual
factors.

👉 In simple terms:
Pragmatics = meaning in use or meaning in context.

Pragmatics is about what people mean by what they say, not just what the words literally
mean.

Example:

Sentence: "Can you pass the salt?"

• Semantics: It's a question about ability.

• Pragmatics: It’s actually a polite request.

Historical Background Of Pragmatics:

• Word pragmatics is derived from Latin word "Pragmaticos" meaning [being

practical]. Pragmatics is a relatively late comer in linguistics. It enters the linguistics
scene at the end of the 1970s. The concept of pragmatics has roots in philosophy
and semiotics dating back to the 1930s, it formally emerged as a linguistic discipline
in the 1960s and 70s, largely influenced by the work of J.L. Austin and H.P. Grice.
Before this, language studies were primarily focused on historical and comparative
linguistics, with less attention paid to language in use and context.

🔹 Key Features of Pragmatics

1. Context dependence – Meaning is affected by the situation.

2. Speaker intention – What the speaker means is more important than what they say
literally.
3. Inference – Listeners must read between the lines to understand.
 4. Interaction – Meaning is shaped by how speakers and listeners interact.

🔹 Main Topics/Types of Pragmatics

• Pragmatic meaning goes beyond the literal meaning of words. It includes several
types of context-based meaning:

1. Contextual Meaning
Context-based meaning is the idea that the meaning of what someone says
often depends on the situation in which it is said — not just the words
themselves.
Types of Context in Pragmatics

Here are the main types of context that affect meaning:

1. Physical Context

Refers to the physical setting where communication takes place.

Includes place, time, objects present, and environment.

➢ Example:

“It’s cold in here.” → Could mean: “Close the window” (if the room is chilly)

2. Linguistic Context (Co-text)

The words, phrases, or sentences that come before or after the utterance.

Helps us interpret ambiguous meanings.

➢ Example:

“He did it again.”

→ What “it” means depends on the surrounding conversation.

3. Social Context

Involves the relationship between the speaker and listener, including:

Social roles (e.g., student–teacher, boss–employee)

Level of formality
Power dynamics

➢ Example:

“Shut the door.”

→ Might be acceptable from a teacher to a student, but rude in reverse.

5. Cognitive Context (Shared Knowledge / Mental Context)

What the speaker and listener already know or believe.

Includes background knowledge, assumptions, and beliefs.

➢ Example:

“He’s doing a Messi.”

→ Listeners need to know who Messi is and what he’s famous for.

Summary Table:

Cultural Context

Involves the values, traditions, norms, and communication styles of a particular culture.

Important for understanding indirect speech, politeness, or taboos.

a. Example:

In some cultures, “You’ve gained weight” may be seen as friendly, not rude.

1. Physical context – Where and when the conversation happens

2. Linguistic context – What was said before
3. Social context – Relationship between speaker and listener (e.g. formal or casual)
4. Cognitive context – Shared knowledge, traditions, or values
5. Speaker’s intention – politeness varies by culture of

2. Deixis
Deixis refers to words or expressions that cannot be fully understood without knowing the
context — especially who is speaking, when, and where.

➢ ➤ The word “deixis” comes from Greek and means “pointing”.

Types of Deixis
Person Deixis Refers to people involved in the conversation I, you, he, she, we,
they

Place Deixis Refers to location relative to speaker here, there, this, that

Time Deixis Refers to time relative to when something is said now, then, today, tomorrow,
yesterday

Discourse Deixis Refers to parts of the text/discourse “as mentioned earlier”, “in
the next paragraph”

Social Deixis Refers to social relationships or formality Sir, Madam, Dr., Your Majesty,
tu/vous (in French)

Examples in Sentences:

1. Person Deixis: “I am happy you came.”

→ “I” = the speaker; “you” = the listener

2. Place Deixis: “Put it over there.”

→ “there” = depends on speaker’s physical location

3. Time Deixis: “I’ll see you tomorrow.”

→ “tomorrow” = depends on today’s date

4. Discourse Deixis: “In the next section, we will discuss deixis.”

→ “next section” = refers to part of the same text

5. Social Deixis: “Can I help you, sir?”

→ “sir” shows respect or social distance.

Summary

• Words that point to people, places, or time based on context.

• Types:
o Person deixis: I, you, he, she, we
o Place deixis: here, there, this, that
o Time deixis: now, then, today, tomorrow

Example: “I'll see you there tomorrow.”

• “I” = speaker
• “you” = listener
 • “there” and “tomorrow” depend on context

3. Implicature

• When a speaker suggests something without saying it directly.

• Conversational implicature:
o Based on context and shared understanding.

Example:
A: “Did you enjoy the movie?”
B: “The popcorn was great.”
➤ Implicature: The movie wasn't good

4. Speech Acts
Speech Act Theory (by J.L. Austin & John Searle)

Definition:

Speech Act Theory explains how saying something is also doing something — language is
not just about describing things, but also about performing actions through speech.

➢ When we speak, we often act — not just share information.

• Language is used to do things, not just to say things.

• Types of speech acts:
o Assertives: stating something (“It’s raining.”)
o Directives: requesting, commanding (“Close the door.”)
o Commissives: promising (“I’ll help you.”)
o Expressives: showing emotions (“I’m sorry.”)
o Declarations: changing reality by words (“I now pronounce you husband and
wife.”)

3. Implicature

• When a speaker suggests something without saying it directly.

• Conversational implicature:
o Based on context and shared understanding.

Example:
A: “Did you enjoy the movie?”
B: “The popcorn was great.”
➤ Implicature: The movie wasn’t good.
 4 Reference

• The reference is an act in which a speaker or writer uses

linguistic forms to enable a listener or reader to identify
something.
• Those linguistic forms are referring expressions which can be
proper nouns (Shakespeare, Japan) definite Noun phrases(the
country, the author) indefinite noun phrases( a woman, a beautiful
place) or pronoun(it, he, she, them)

5.Inference

Inference is the process by which a listener figures out what the speaker
really means, even when it’s not directly said.

➤ In other words, the listener uses clues + context + common sense to

understand implied meaning.

Example:

Speaker: “It’s getting late.”

Possible inferences:

“Let’s go home.”

“We should finish this soon.”

“You’re staying too long.”

Meaning depends on context.

6. Presupposition

Presupposition is background information that is assumed to be true or taken for granted

by both the speaker and the listener before a sentence is even spoken.

It is not directly stated, but it is implied in the sentence.Background assumption

that is taken for granted.

Example: “John stopped smoking.”

➤ Presupposes that John used to smoke.
 5. Politeness and Face Theory
Politeness and face theory explain how people manage respect, honor, and
relationships in conversation, especially when making requests, giving orders, or
criticizing.

1. What Is Politeness in Pragmatics?

Politeness refers to the strategies people use to:

• Be respectful
• Avoid conflict
• Protect each other’s dignity or self-image.

2. What Is “Face”?

Face (from sociologist Erving Goffman) means a person’s public self-image —

the way they want to be seen and respected in social situations.

➢ Face = our social identity that we try to maintain.

Two Types of Face:

Positive Face: The desire to be liked, accepted, appreciated “You’re so

good at this, can you help me?”

Negative Face: The desire to be independent, free from pressure “Sorry to

bother you, but could you help me?”

3. Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs)

• An action that threatens someone’s face is called an FTA.

• Threat to positive face: Ignoring or rejecting someone
• Threat to negative face: Forcing someone to do something (e.g., “Do it
now!”)

Summary:

Concept Meaning

Face: A person’s social image

Politeness: Strategies to protect face

Positive Face: Want to be liked

Negative Face: Want to be free from pressure

 FTA An act that threatens someone’s face

Politeness Strategies Ways to soften FTAs and keep communication smooth

Anaphora
Anaphoras is the use of a word or phrase (usually a pronoun) that refers back to something
already mentioned earlier in the sentence or conversation.
➤ The word that refers back is called the anaphor.
➤ The thing it refers to is called the antecedent.
Example
Sentence: Sarah went to the park. She enjoyed the fresh air.
“She” = anaphor
“Sarah” = antecedent
Catastrophic – Meaning & Use:
Catastrophic is an adjective that describes something that is extremely harmful,
disastrous, or causes great damage or suffering.
Examples in Sentences:
• The earthquake had catastrophic effects on the city.
→ (The earthquake caused massive destruction.)
• A catastrophic failure in the engine caused the plane to crash.
→ (A very serious and dangerous failure.
Speech Act Theory (by J.L. Austin & John Searle)

Definition:

Speech Act Theory explains how saying something is also doing something — language is
not just about describing things, but also about performing actions through speech.
Example:.
➢ “I apologize.”
This sentence is not just words — it is an act of apologizing.
Three Levels of a Speech Act (by Austin)
Locationary Act The literal meaning of the sentence. A question about
someone’s ability
Illocutionary Act The intended meaning or function. A polite request to open the
window
Perlocutionary Act: The effect on the listener. The listener actually opens the
window.
🔹 Examples of Pragmatics in Action
Sentence Possible Pragmatic Meaning

“Can you open the window?” A request, not a question about ability

“You’re really smart.” Could be genuine or sarcastic

“It’s cold in here.” Possibly a request to close the window

“I have a meeting at 3.” Implying: “I can’t meet you before that.”

🔹 Difference Between Semantics and Pragmatics

Aspect Semantics Pragmatics

Focus Literal meaning Intended/Contextual meaning

Context used? No Yes

Example “He is cold” = low temperature “He is cold” = unfriendly (in context)

✅ Summary

• Pragmatics = Study of meaning in context.

• It helps us understand how people use language to express more than just literal
meanings.
• Key topics: Speech acts, deixis, implicature, presupposition, politeness, and
context.