KIT – KALAIGNARKARUNANIDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, COIMBATORE

DEPARTMENT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND DATA SCIENCE

B19CST702 – INTERNET OF THINGS

UNIT – I FUNDAMENTALS OF IOT

Introduction to Computer Networks – Evolution of Internet of Things – Enabling models – IoT

Architectures: oneM2M – IoT World Forum (IoTWF) and Alternative IoT models – Simplified IoT
Architecture and Core IoT functional Stack – Cloud in IoT – Functional blocks of an IoT ecosystem –
Sensors - Actuators – Smart Objects and Connecting Smart Objects.

Introduction to Computer Networks:

A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers, networking hardware,

personal computers, and other specialized or general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a
computer network. Hostnames and network addresses are used to identify them.

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share

information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different devices
allows users to communicate more easily. A computer network is a collection of two or
more computer systems that are linked together. A network connection can be established
using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used to connect computers
and tools in any network.

What Do Computer Networks Do?

Computer Networks are one of the important aspects of Computer Science. In the early
days, it is used for data transmission on telephone lines and had a very limited use, but
nowadays, it is used in a variety of places.

Computer Networks help in providing better connectivity that helps nowadays. Modern
computer networks have the following functionality:

Computer Networks help in operating virtually

Computer Networks integrate on a large scale

Computer Networks respond very quickly in case of conditions change

Computer Networks help in providing data security

Key Components of a Computer Network

In simple terms, a computer network is made up of two main parts: devices (called nodes)
and connections (called links). The links connect the devices to each other. The rules for
how these connections send information are called communication protocols. The starting
and ending points of these communications are often called ports.

Key Components of Computer Network

1. Network Devices

Basic hardware interconnecting network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs),
Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers, are used in all networks. In addition, a mechanism
for connecting these building parts is necessary, which is usually galvanic cable and optical
cable are less popular ("optical fiber")The following are the network devices :

NIC (Network Interface Card): A network card, often known as a network adapter
or NIC (network interface card), is computer hardware that enables computers to
communicate via a network. It offers physical access to networking media and, in many
cases, MAC addresses serve as a low-level addressing scheme. Each network interface card
has a distinct identifier. This is stored on a chip that is attached to the card.

Repeater: A repeater is an electrical device that receives a signal, cleans it of unwanted

noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level or to the opposite side of an
obstruction, allowing the signal to travel greater distances without degradation. In the
majority of twisted pair Ethernet networks, Repeaters are necessary for cable lengths longer
than 100 meters in some systems. Repeaters are based on physics.

Hub: A hub is a device that joins together many twisted pairs or fiber optic Ethernet
devices to give the illusion of a formation of a single network segment. The device can be
visualized as a multiport repeater. A network hub is a relatively simple broadcast device.
Any packet entering any port is regenerated and broadcast out on all other ports, and hubs
do not control any of the traffic that passes through them. Packet collisions occur as a result
of every packet being sent out through all other ports, substantially impeding the smooth
flow of communication.

Bridges: Bridges broadcast data to all the ports but not to the one that received the
transmission. Bridges, on the other hand, learn which MAC addresses are reachable through
specific ports rather than copying messages to all ports as hubs do. Once a port and an
address are associated, the bridge will only transport traffic from that address to that port.

Switches: A switch differs from a hub in that it only forwards frames to the ports that are
participating in the communication, rather than all of the ports that are connected. The
collision domain is broken by a switch, yet the switch depicts itself as a broadcast domain.
Frame-forwarding decisions are made by switches based on MAC addresses.

Routers: Routers are networking devices that use headers and forwarding tables to find the
optimal way to forward data packets between networks. A router is a computer networking
device that links two or more computer networks and selectively exchanges data packets
between them. A router can use address information in each data packet to determine if the
source and destination are on the same network or if the data packet has to be transported
between networks. When numerous routers are deployed in a wide collection of
interconnected networks, the routers share target system addresses so that each router can
develop a table displaying the preferred pathways between any two systems on the
associated networks.

Gateways: To provide system compatibility, a gateway may contain devices such as

protocol translators, impedance-matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal
translators. It also necessitates the development of administrative procedures that are
acceptable to both networks. By completing the necessary protocol conversions, a protocol
translation/mapping gateway joins networks that use distinct network protocol technologies.

2. Links

Links are the ways information travels between devices, and they can be of two types:
Wired: Communication done in a wired medium. Copper wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic
cables are all options. A wired network employs wires to link devices to the Internet or
another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.

Wireless: Wireless means without wire, media that is made up of electromagnetic waves
(EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will be present on all wireless devices.
For data or voice communication, a wireless network uses radio frequency waves rather
than wires.

3. Communication Protocols

A communication protocol is a set of rules that all devices follow when they share
information. Some common protocols are TCP/IP, IEEE 802, Ethernet, wireless LAN, and
cellular standards. TCP/IP is a model that organizes how communication works in modern
networks. It has four functional layers for these communication links:

Network Access Layer: This layer controls how data is physically transferred, including
how hardware sends data through wires or fibers.

Internet Layer: This layer packages data into understandable packets and ensures it can be
sent and received.

Transport Layer: This layer keeps the communication between devices steady and reliable.

Application Layer: This layer allows high-level applications to access the network to start
data transfer.

Most of the modern internet structure is based on the TCP/IP model, although the similar
seven-layer OSI model still has a strong influence.

IEEE 802 is a group of standards for local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan area
networks (MAN). The most well-known member of the IEEE 802 family is wireless LAN,
commonly known as WLAN or Wi-Fi.

4. Network Defense

While nodes, links, and protocols are the building blocks of a network, a modern network
also needs strong defenses. Security is crucial because huge amounts of data are constantly
being created, moved, and processed. Some examples of network defense tools are
firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDS), intrusion prevention systems (IPS), network
access control (NAC), content filters, proxy servers, anti-DDoS devices, and load balancers.

How Does a Computer Network Work?

Computer Networks simply work using nodes and links. Data communication equipment is
simply termed as Nodes. For example, Modems, Hubs, Switches, etc. whereas links in
Computer networks can be referred to as a connection between two nodes. We have several
types of links like cable wires, optical fibers, etc.
Whenever a Computer Network is working, nodes have the work of sending and receiving
data via the links. Computer Network provides some set of protocols that help in following
the rules and protocols.

Criteria of a Good Network

Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The
performance of the network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users,
the type of medium & Hardware.

Reliability: In addition to accuracy is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a

link to recover from failure, and the network's robustness in catastrophe.

Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures
for recovery from breaches and data loss.

Goals of Computer Networking

Programs do not have to execute on a single system because of resource and load sharing

Reduced costs - Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives, and other peripherals

Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place

Scalability (it's simple to add more processors or computers)

Communication and mail (people living apart can work together)

Information Access (remote information access, access to the internet, e-mail, video
conferencing, and online shopping)

Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)

Social Networking

Types of Computer Networks

Division Based on Area Covered

Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that covers an area of around 10
kilometers. For example, a college network or an office network. Depending upon the needs
of the organization, a LAN can be a single office, building, or Campus. We can have two
PCs and one printer in-home office or it can extend throughout the company and include
audio and video devices. Each host in LAN has an identifier, an address that defines hosts in
LAN. A packet sent by the host to another host carries both the source host's and the
destination host's address.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN refers to a network that covers an entire city.
For example: consider the cable television network.
Wide Area Network (WAN): WAN refers to a network that connects countries or
continents. For example, the Internet allows users to access a distributed system called www
from anywhere around the globe. WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches,
routers, or modems. A LAN is normally privately owned by an organization that uses it. We
see two distinct examples of WANs today: point-to-point WANs and Switched WANs

Point To Point: Connects two connecting devices through transmission media.

Switched: A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.

Based on Types of Communication

Point To Point networks: Point-to-Point networking is a type of data networking that

establishes a direct link between two networking nodes.
A direct link between two devices, such as a computer and a printer, is known as a point-to-
point connection.

Multipoint: is the one in which more than two specific devices share links. In the
multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection.

Broadcast networks: In broadcast networks, a signal method in which numerous parties

can hear a single sender. Radio stations are an excellent illustration of the "Broadcast
Network" in everyday life. The radio station is a sender of data/signal in this scenario, and
data is only intended to travel in one direction. Away from the radio transmission tower, to
be precise.

Based on the Type of Architecture

P2P Networks: Computers with similar capabilities and configurations are referred to as
peers.The "peers" in a peer-to-peer network are computer systems that are connected to each
other over the Internet. Without the use of a central server, files can be shared directly
between systems on the network.

Client-Server Networks: Each computer or process on the network is either a client or a

server in a client-server architecture (client/server). The client asks for services from the
server, which the server provides. Servers are high-performance computers or processes that
manage disc drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic (network
servers)

Hybrid Networks: The hybrid model uses a combination of client-server and peer-to-peer
architecture. Eg: Torrent.

Types of Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is of two types. These types are mentioned below.
Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is basically the architecture where
the clients and the server are connected as two clients can communicate with each other and
the devices present work as servers in the network.

Peer-to-Peer Architecture: Peer-to-Peer Architecture, computers are connected to each

other and each computer is equally capable of working as there is no central server here.
Each device present here can be used as a client or server.

Types of Enterprise Computer Networks

There are three main types of Enterprise Computer Networks which are mentioned below.

Local Area Network (LAN): Local Area Networks are small-scale networks used in small
companies or as test networks. It has a limited size.

Wide Area Networks (WAN): Wide Area Networks are networks that are used for a larger
area than local area networks and are used for long-distance communication.

Service Provider Networks: Service Provider Networks are the networks that help in
wireless communication, high-speed internet access, etc.

Key Objectives of Creating and Deploying a Computer Network

No industry—whether it's education, retail, finance, tech, government, or healthcare—can

function without well-designed computer networks. The larger the organization, the more
complex the network becomes. Before starting the challenging job of creating and setting up
a computer network, here are some key objectives to consider.

1. Resource Sharing

Today’s enterprises are spread across the globe, with critical assets being shared across
departments, geographies, and time zones. Clients are no more bound by location. A
network allows data and hardware to be accessible to every pertinent user. This also helps
with interdepartmental data processing. For example, the marketing team analyzes customer
data and product development cycles to enable executive decisions at the top level.

2. Resource Availability & Reliability

A network ensures that resources are not stuck in isolated areas and can be accessed from
multiple locations. High reliability comes from having various sources of supply. Important
resources are backed up across multiple machines, so they remain accessible even if there
are hardware problems.

3. Performance Management

As a company grows, its workload increases. Adding one or more processors to the network
boosts the overall performance of the system and allows it to handle this growth. Storing
data in well-designed databases can significantly speed up searching and retrieving
information.

4.Cost Savings
Big mainframe computers are costly, so it's smarter to add processors strategically
throughout the system. This boosts performance and saves money. Networks let employees
access information quickly, saving operational time and costs. Centralized network
administration means fewer investments are needed for IT support.

5. Increased Storage Capacity

Network-attached storage devices are great for employees who handle lots of data. For
instance, the data science team doesn't each need their own data storage for the large
number of records they process. Centralized repositories are more efficient. As businesses
deal with record amounts of customer data, the ability to expand storage capacity is crucial.

6. Streamlined Collaboration & Communication

Networks greatly influence how companies operate daily. Employees can share files, see
each other's work, sync calendars, and exchange ideas more efficiently. Internal messaging
systems like Slack facilitate easy flow of information and conversations within modern
enterprises. However, emails remain the formal mode of communication with clients,
partners, and vendors.

7. Reduction of Errors

Networks decrease errors by ensuring everyone gets information from one source, even if
they're in different places. Backed-up data ensures consistency and continuity. Standard
versions of customer and employee manuals can be easily accessed by many people without
much trouble.

8. Secured Remote Access

Computer networks offer flexibility, which is crucial during uncertain times like now when
natural disasters and pandemics are affecting the world. A secure network guarantees that
users can access and work on sensitive data safely, even when they're not at the company's
location. Mobile devices registered to the network can also provide multiple layers of
authentication, ensuring that unauthorized users can't access the system.

What is Network Topology?

The structure of the network and how each component is connected to the others are defined
by the network topology. Different types of network topology are mentioned below:

Bus Topology

Ring Topology

Star Topology

Mesh Topology

Tree Topology

Bus Topology
Every computer and network device is connected to a single cable in a bus
topology network. Linear Bus topology is defined as having exactly two terminals.

Advantages
 Installation is simple
 Compared to mesh, star, and tree topologies, the bus utilizes less cabling
Disadvantages
 Difficulty in reconfiguring and isolating faults
 A bus cable malfunction or break interrupts all communication
For more, you can refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology.

Ring Topology
The topology is named ring topology because one computer is connected to another, with
the final one being connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device. A signal is
passed along the ring in one direction. Each ring incorporates a repeater.

Advantages
Data transmission is relatively straightforward because packets only move in one direction
There is no requirement for a central controller to manage communication between nodes
Easy installation & Reconfiguration
Simplified Faulty connections
Disadvantages
In a Unidirectional Ring, a data packet must traverse through all nodes
All computers must be turned on in order for them to connect with one another
For more, you can refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology.
Star Topology
Each device in a star topology has a dedicated point-to-point link to a central controller,
which is commonly referred to as the HUB. There is no direct connection between the
devices. Traffic between the devices is not allowed in this topology. As an exchange, the
controller is used.

Advantages
When attaching or disconnecting devices, there are no network interruptions
It's simple to set up and configure
Identifying and isolating faults is simple
Less Expensive than mesh
Easy to install & configure
Disadvantages
Nodes attached to the hub, switch, or concentrator is failed if they fail
Because of the expense of the hubs, it is more expensive than linear bus topologies
More cable is required compared to a bus or ring
Too much dependency on Hub
For more, you can refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology.
Example: Used in high-speed LANs

Mesh Topology
Every device in a mesh topology has dedicated point-to-point connectivity to every other
device. The term "dedicated" refers to the fact that the link exclusively transports data
between the two devices it links. To connect n devices, a fully connected mesh network
contains n *(n-1)/2 physical channels.

Advantages
Data can be sent from multiple devices at the same time. This topology can handle a lot of
traffic.
Even if one of the connections fails, a backup is always available. As a result, data transit is
unaffected.
Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
Point to Point links make fault transmission & fault isolation easy.
Disadvantages
The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports that are necessary.
The sheer bulk of wiring can be greater than the available space can accommodate.
It is difficult to install and reconfigure.
For more, you can refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Mesh Topology.
Example: connection of telephone regional office in which each regional office needs to be
connected to every other regional office.
Tree Topology
The topology of a tree is similar to that of a star. Nodes in a tree, like those in a star, are
connected to a central hub that manages network traffic. It has a root node, which is
connected to all other nodes, producing a hierarchy. Hierarchical topology is another name
for it. The number of Star networks is connected via Bus in Tree Topology.

Advantages
Network expansion is both possible and simple.
We partition the entire network into pieces (star networks) that are easier to manage and
maintain.
Other segments are unaffected if one segment is damaged.
Disadvantages
Tree topology relies largely on the main bus cable because of its basic structure, and if it
fails, the entire network is handicapped.
Maintenance becomes more challenging when more nodes and segments are added.
For more, you can refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Tree Topology.

What is Internet?
The Internet is a larger network that allows computer networks controlled by enterprises,
governments, colleges, and other organizations all over the world to communicate with one
another. As a result, there is a tangle of cables, computers, data centers, routers, servers,
repeaters, satellites, and Wi-Fi towers that allow digital data to go around the world.
The Internet is a vast network of networks that functions as a networking infrastructure. It
links millions of computers throughout the world, creating a network in which any computer
can talk with any other computer as long as they are both linked to the Internet. The Internet
is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate and share information
using a standardized Internet Protocol Suite.
How to Connect to the Internet?
We can connect to the internet in the following ways:
Dial-Up: In order to access the Internet, in this type of connection, users must connect their
phone line to a computer. This link prevents the user from using tier home phone service to
make or receive calls.
Broadband: Broadband is a high-speed internet connection that is frequently utilized
nowadays and is provided by cable or phone companies.
Wireless Connections: Internet access is accomplished by radio waves, thus it is possible to
connect to the Internet from any location. Wi-Fi and mobile service providers are examples
of wireless connections.
Advantages of the Internet
Source of Entertainment: Online gaming, talking, browsing, music, movies, dramas, and TV
series are quickly becoming the most popular ways to pass the time.
Source of Information: There is no better place to conduct research than the internet. We
can learn about the latest trends, communicate with experts without having to physically
visit them, and seek professional advice over the Internet.
E-Commerce: With the advancement of internet technology, large online E-
commerce enterprises such as Amazon, Ali Baba, myntra, etc. have emerged.
Working from home, collaborating with others, and having access to a global workforce are
all advantages.
Keeps Updated: Because there are hundreds of thousands of newsgroups and services that
keep you updated with every tick of the clock, the Internet is a source of the most recent
news.

Evolution of Internet of Things

Internet of Things refers to the networking of physical objects that can communicate with
each other and with the internet. These devices, from household appliances to industrial
machinery, use sensors to collect and share data, enabling automated responses.

IoT devices are networked either locally or via the internet and are designed to make our
everyday lives more efficient. It therefore enables direct communication between devices
(machine-to-machine), allowing them to perform tasks independently and learn from
experience. It is already present in many areas, such as robot vacuum cleaners, Apple
AirTags and fitness wristbands.
The Internet of Things is at the heart of our digital world and is fundamentally changing the
way we live and work. It refers to the networking of physical devices that collect, analyze
and evaluate data. From networked household appliances to industrial machines, the IoT
enables automation and increased efficiency that goes far beyond conventional
technologies.
What is the Internet of Things?

Internet of Things refers to the networking of physical objects that can communicate with
each other and with the internet. These devices, from household appliances to industrial
machinery, use sensors to collect and share data, enabling automated responses.

IoT devices are networked either locally or via the internet and are designed to make our
everyday lives more efficient. It therefore enables direct communication between devices
(machine-to-machine), allowing them to perform tasks independently and learn from
experience. It is already present in many areas, such as robot vacuum cleaners, Apple
AirTags and fitness wristbands.

Key features of the IoT:

 Networked objects: Devices with sensors, actuators and software.

  Unique identification: unique identifier (UID) of the object
 Automation: simplification of everyday life through automatic processes, without
user input

The history of the IoT

The term “Internet of Things” was coined by Kevin Ashton in 1999. He used the
term in a presentation on RFID chips, which enable automatic and contactless
identification. The invention of the World Wide Web in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee
was decisive for the IoT. It developed through the combination of wireless
technologies, MEMS, microservices and the internet.

Important milestones

 1980s: Networked Coca-Cola vending machine at Carnegie Mellon University.

 1990: John Romkey's internet-enabled toaster.
 1999: Kevin Ashton coins the term “Internet of Things”.
 2000: LG's smart refrigerator.
 2010: China's government integrates the IoT into its five-year plan.

The technologies and distribution

RFID tags and IPv6 addresses enabled the mass production of IoT devices. RFID tags track
inventory in the industry. IPv6 solved the IP address problem and promoted smart home
technologies. AI (artificial intelligence) is central to the IoT. Devices collect data, learn and
adapt. Voice assistants store commands in the cloud and learn independently. IoT has
evolved from experiments to a widespread technology and is now present in many areas of
life.

How networked devices work

The IoT automates data collection, transmission and processing using networked devices
with sensors. The data is often sent to the cloud and analyzed there. IoT consists of
a measuring instrument, a node (gateway/hub) and a user interface. The measuring
instrument collects data and sends it to the hub, which processes or forwards it. The user
interface enables commands and data visualization.

Technologies enabled by the IoT:

 Connectivity: internet protocols enable easy and efficient networking of sensors

with the cloud and other devices.
 Machine learning: Machine learning and cloud data analytics enable rapid insights
and enhance the IoT, which in turn enhances these technologies.
 Cloud computing: Enables scaling and real-time processing of large amounts of
data
 Artificial intelligence for conversational functions: Neural networks enable voice
processing through IoT devices, making them attractive and affordable for home use.

Use in companies in various industries

The IoT is crucial for companies to improve performance and increase customer loyalty.
Data generated by IoT helps companies to optimize their operations and develop additional
digital services. At the same time, IoT is essential for increasing the competitiveness of
companies through the targeted use of networked devices. The IoT offers extensive benefits
for many industries, including consumer goods, retail, smart home technologies,
manufacturing, healthcare, transportation and logistics, production, industry and the public
sector.

Benefits

Benefits of IoT for companies

 Increased efficiency and cost reduction

 Error reduction
 Increased customer satisfaction
 Faster product development

Advantages of IoT for customers

 Flexibility and cost savings

 Reliability and efficiency
 Convenience
 Safety and security
 Faster problem solving

Enabling IoT Technologies

 IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are

 Wireless Sensor Network
 Cloud Computing
 Big Data Analytics
 Communications Protocols
 Embedded System

1. Wireless Sensor Network(WSN) :

A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor the
environmental and physical conditions. A wireless sensor network consists of end nodes,
routers and coordinators. End nodes have several sensors attached to them where the data is
passed to a coordinator with the help of routers. The coordinator also acts as the gateway
that connects WSN to the internet.
Example -
 Weather monitoring system
 Indoor air quality monitoring system
 Soil moisture monitoring system
 Surveillance system
 Health monitoring system
2. Cloud Computing :
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the internet.
Cloud means something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases,
webservers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
Characteristics -
1. Broad network access
2. On demand self-services
3. Rapid scalability
4. Measured service
5. Pay-per-use
Provides different services, such as -
 IaaS (Infrastructure as a service)
Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical machines, virtual
machines, servers, networking, storage and data center space on a pay per use basis.
Major IaaS providers are Google Compute Engine, Amazon Web Services and
Microsoft Azure etc.
Ex : Web Hosting, Virtual Machine etc.
 PaaS (Platform as a service)
Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to support the complete
life cycle of building and delivering West web based (cloud) applications - without the
cost and complexity of buying and managing underlying hardware, software
provisioning and hosting. Computing platforms such as hardware, operating systems and
libraries etc. Basically, it provides a platform to develop applications.
Ex : App Cloud, Google app engine
 SaaS (Software as a service)
It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service. Instead of installing
and maintaining software, you simply access it via the internet, freeing yourself from
complex software and hardware management.
SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on demand software or
hosted software.
SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s service and they manage security availability
and performance.
Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.
3. Big Data Analytics :
It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data. Collection of data
whose volume, velocity or variety is simply too massive and tough to store, control, process
and examine the data using traditional databases.
Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos, digital
images, sensors and sales transaction records.
Several steps involved in analyzing big data -
1. Data cleaning
2. Munging
3. Processing
4. Visualization
Examples -
 Bank transactions
 Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
 E-commerce and in Big-Basket
 Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness bands
4. Communications Protocols :
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and linking to
applications. Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the network.
Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of
protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in
software they are a protocol stack.
They are used in
1. Data encoding
2. Addressing schemes
5. Embedded Systems :
It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units (Ethernet Wi-Fi
adapters), input output units (display keyword etc. ) and storage devices (flash memory).
It collects the data and sends it to the internet.
Embedded systems used in
Examples -
1. Digital camera
2. DVD player, music player
3. Industrial robots
4. Wireless Routers etc.

IoT Architecture

ONE M2M Architecture

An Introduction to oneM2M's Architecture

oneM2M Common Service Functions

The oneM2M architecture is based on the concept of Common Service Functions (CSF)
for IoT applications that are provided by a Common Service Entity (CSE). A CSE can be
implemented in many different ways, for example as a cloud service, on a gateway
device, or on a capable IoT device.

A CSE provides a set of common services for IoT applications. Examples for such services
are:
 Data management: A CSE provides a set of services for storing, retrieving, and
managing IoT data. This includes services for storing, retrieving and managing IoT
data.
 Device management: Another common service function is the management of IoT
devices. This includes services for registering IoT devices and managing IoT devices.
 Security: An important part is the set of functionalities for securing IoT data and
providing access control within a oneM2M system which is provided by a CSE.
 Communication: A CSE provides a set of services for communicating within an
oneM2M deployment and with IoT devices. This includes services for sending and
receiving IoT data, for managing IoT device communication channels, and for
managing IoT device communication protocols.
 Discovery: oneM2M provides services for discovery services for IoT devices and IoT
data within a oneM2M system. This includes also Semantic discovery services.

oneM2M Architecture
The following figure shows the basic architecture of oneM2M.

The middle layer (in red) represents the Common Service Entities (CSE) and its Common
Service Functions (CSF). The CSE provides the common services for IoT applications
called Application Entities (AE, in blue).

At the bottom the Network Service Entity (NSE, in grey) provides network services for the
CSEs. The details of the NSE are not part of the oneM2M standard, but it is an important
part of the oneM2M architecture. The NSE provides the connectivity services for the CSEs.
This includes services for connecting CSEs and IoT devices to each other, and also provides
services to manage network resources and connected devices as well as to provide network
security.

Reference Points
The oneM2M architecture defines a set of reference points that are used to describe the
RESTful interfaces between the different components of a oneM2M system. Above Figure
shows the reference points of the oneM2M architecture. They start with the letters Mc and are
followed by a letter that indicates the direction of the interface.

IoT World Forum (IoTWF)

The IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardised Architecture is a set of rules that enable those
who deal with the Internet of Things (IoT) to accomplish their jobs better. These
recommendations were developed in 2014 by a consortium of large corporations, including
Cisco and IBM. These guidelines are super important in the IoT world because they provide a
way for people to create and connect IoT systems. It's like having a map to build and grow
IoT projects, making them work well together and making it easier for everyone to use.

IoTWF architecture consists of seven layers, each layer specifying a different purpose.

The seven layers of the IoTWF Standardized Architecture include –

1. Physical Devices and Controllers (Things)

These are the actual "things" of the Internet of Things. These might be physical assets such as
machines or equipment. These "things" in the tech sector might also be sensors and devices
linked to these assets. Although they may not yet have sensors, we are heading towards
increasingly interconnected systems.

2. Connectivity

This layer bridges the gap between the Edge Node device and the cloud, ensuring that the data
can run smoothly. It is an important aspect since it ensures that data from the field may reach
its destination in the cloud or on-premise. This layer functions as a transportation system for
your IoT data, and it may take various routes, such as highways or backroads, to deliver your
data where it needs to go.
3. Edge Computing

This layer, also known as "Cloud Edge" or "Cloud Gateway" computing, is crucial in any IoT
system. Edge computing is a type of computing that occurs at or near the network's
edge/at the device layer. Several important tasks take place in this layer –

 Protocol conversion - Protocol conversion is similar to having a translator ensure that

data speaks the correct language while flowing between different portions of the IoT
system.
 Routing - Consider routing to be traffic control. It routes data to the appropriate
locations for processing and analysis.
 Fast Decision-Making - This layer is likewise in charge of making rapid decisions to
keep things operating smoothly and with low delays.

4. Data Accumulation

IoT systems create large amounts of data, and this layer acts as a data storage warehouse. It is
necessary since this layer stores incoming data and prepares data for future processing. Once
the data is ready, it is sent to the next levels for analysis and decision-making.

5. Data Abstraction

We're finally making sense of the data. We collect similar data from a variety of sources,
prioritise critical information, and prepare data for a variety of applications.

6. Application Layer

The Application Layer is where the real action happens. It's fairly simple, and here's what it
does:

 Control and Data Logic - Consider this layer to be the control centre for your IoT
system. It's where all the smart decisions are made.
 Wide Range of Functions - This layer performs a wide range of functions, including
monitoring how everything works, optimising processes to improve them, managing
alarms when something goes wrong, analysing data to find important patterns, setting
up control rules, and even handling logistics and understanding consumer behaviour.

7. Collaboration and Processes

Finally, this layer integrates everything. It is the point at which individuals engage with the
IoT system. Data and apps are used to make choices, optimise operations, and generate value.
This layer connects technology to real-world advantages such as enhancing businesses or
improving our lives.

Alternative IoT models

Alternative IoT models offer diverse approaches to connecting and managing devices,
communication protocols, and data analysis, catering to specific needs and
environments. These models include platforms like AWS IoT and Azure IoT, communication
protocols like MQTT and CoAP, and specialized networks like NB-IoT and
LoRaWAN. Additionally, various communication paradigms like publish-subscribe, push-
pull, and request-response are used for device interactions.
 IoT Platforms:

 Proprietary Platforms:
Companies like Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Microsoft Azure offer comprehensive IoT
platforms with services for device management, data analytics, and application enablement.
 Open-Source Platforms:
Platforms like Blynk Technologies offer hardware-agnostic solutions with device
management, data analytics, and mobile app development tools.
2. Communication Protocols:

 MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport):

A lightweight messaging protocol commonly used for device-to-device and device-to-cloud
communication.
 CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol):
Designed for resource-constrained devices, CoAP is a lightweight protocol for exchanging
data over UDP.
 LwM2M (Lightweight M2M):
A protocol based on the constraints of constrained devices and networks, used for managing
and monitoring IoT devices.
 Other Protocols:
Protocols like Zigbee, Z-Wave, BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy), and LPWAN (Low Power
Wide Area Network) offer different trade-offs in terms of range, power consumption, and
complexity.
3. Communication Models:
 Publish-Subscribe:
Devices publish data to a broker, which then delivers it to interested subscribers.
 Push-Pull:
Devices can either push data to a server or pull it from the server based on their needs.
 Request-Response:
Devices send requests to a server, which then responds with the requested information.
4. Specialized Networks:

 NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT):

A cellular technology for low-power, wide-area communication, suitable for battery-operated
devices and areas with limited network infrastructure.
 LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network):
A LPWAN technology that uses LoRa radio technology for long-range communication, often
used in sensor networks.
 Sigfox:
A LPWAN technology that uses licensed mobile radio frequencies for low-power
communication, offering better security and reliability.
5. Other Models:

 Fog Computing:
Distributes computing resources closer to the edge of the network, enabling faster processing
and lower latency for time-sensitive applications.
 Hybrid Models:
Combine different technologies and communication models to optimize performance and
resource utilization, such as hybrid cellular IoT models that utilize fog computing.
 Purdue Model:
A hierarchical model used in industrial automation and IoT to segment devices and control
systems into different levels.
The choice of an IoT model depends on factors such as the application, the device constraints,
the network infrastructure, and the desired level of control and flexibility.

Simplified IoT Architecture and Core IoT Functional Stack

we present an IoT framework that highlights the fundamental building blocks that are
common to most IoT systems and which is intended to help you in designing an IoT network.
This framework is presented as two parallel stacks: The IoT Data Management and Compute
Stack and the Core IoT Functional Stack. Reducing the framework down to a pair of three-
layer stacks in no way suggests that the model lacks the detail necessary to develop a
sophisticated IoT strategy. Rather, the intention is to simplify the IoT architecture into its
most basic building blocks and then to use it as a foundation to understand key design and
deployment principles that are applied to industry-specific use cases.

Figure 1.4.1 Simplified IoT Architecture

Nearly every published IoT model includes core layers similar to those shown on the
left side of Figure 1.4.1, including “things,” a communications network, and applications.
However, unlike other models, the framework presented here separates the core IoT and data
management into parallel and aligned stacks, allowing you to carefully examine the functions
of both the network and the applications at each stage of a complex IoT system. This
separation gives you better visibility into the functions of each layer. The presentation of the
Core IoT Functional Stack in three layers is meant to simplify your understanding of the IoT
architecture into its most foundational building blocks. Of course, such a simple architecture
needs to be expanded on. The network communications layer of the IoT stack itself involves
a significant amount of detail and incorporates a vast array of technologies. Consider for a
moment the heterogeneity of IoT sensors and the many different ways that exist to connect
them to a network. The network communications layer needs to consolidate these together,
offer gateway and backhaul technologies, and ultimately bring the data back to a central
location for analysis and processing.

The applications and analytics layer of IoT doesn't necessarily exist only in the data center or
in the cloud. Due to the unique challenges and requirements of IoT, it is often necessary to
deploy applications and data management throughout the architecture in a tiered approach,
allowing data collection, analytics, and intelligent controls at multiple points in the IoT
system. In the model presented in this book, data management is aligned with each of the
three layers of the Core IoT Functional Stack. The three data management layers are the edge
layer (data management within the sensors themselves), the fog layer (data management in
the gateways and transit network), and the cloud layer (data management in the cloud or
central data center).
The Core IoT Functional Stack can be expanded into sublayers containing greater detail and
specific network functions. For example, the communications layer is broken down into four
separate sublayers: the access network, gateways and backhaul, IP transport, and operations
and management sublayers.
The applications layer of IoT networks is quite different from the application layer of a
typical enterprise network. Instead of simply using business applications, IoT often involves a
strong big data analytics component.

The Core IoT Functional Stack

IoT networks are built around the concept of “things,” or smart objects performing
functions and delivering new connected services. These objects are “smart” because they use
a combination of contextual information and configured goals to perform actions.
These actions can be self-contained (that is, the smart object does not rely on external
systems for its actions); however, in most cases, the “thing” interacts with an external system
to report information that the smart object collects, to exchange with other objects, or to
interact with a management platform.

 “Things” layer: At this layer, the physical devices need to fit the constraints of the
environment in which they are deployed while still being able to provide the
information needed.

 Communications network layer: When smart objects are not self-contained, they
need to communicate with an external system. In many cases, this communication
uses a wireless technology. This layer has four sublayers:
 Access network sublayer: The last mile of the IoT network is the access network.
This is typically made up of wireless technologies such as 802.11ah, 802.15.4g, and
LoRa. The sensors connected to the access network may also be wired.
 Gateways and backhaul network sublayer: A common communication system
organizes multiple smart objects in a given area around a common gateway. The
gateway communicates directly with the smart objects. The role of the gateway is to
forward the collected information through a longer-range medium (called the
backhaul) to a headend central station where the information is processed. This
information exchange is a Layer 7 (application) function, which is the reason this
object is called a gateway. On IP networks, this gateway also forwards packets from
one IP network to another, and it therefore acts as a router.
 Network transport sublayer: For communication to be successful, network and
transport layer protocols such as IP and UDP must be implemented to support the
variety of devices to connect and media to use.

 IoT network management sublayer: Additional protocols must be in place to allow

the headend applications to exchange data with the sensors. Examples include CoAP
and MQTT.

 Application and analytics layer: At the upper layer, an application needs to process
the collected data, not only to control the smart objects when necessary, but to
make intelligent decision based on the information collected and, in turn, instruct
the “things” or other systems to adapt to the analysed conditions and change their
behaviours or parameters.
Layer 1: Things: Sensors and Actuators Layer

Battery-powered or power-connected: This classification is based on whether the object

carries its own energy supply or receives continuous power from an external power source.
Battery-powered things can be moved more easily than line-powered objects. However,
batteries limit the lifetime and amount of energy that the object is allowed to consume, thus
driving transmission range and frequency.

Mobile or static: This classification is based on whether the “thing” should move or always
stay at the same location. A sensor may be mobile because it is moved from one object to
another (for example, a viscosity sensor moved from batch to batch in a chemical plant) or
because it is attached to a moving object (for example, a location sensor on moving goods in
a warehouse or factory floor). The frequency of the movement may also vary, from
occasional to permanent. The range of mobility (from a few inches to miles away) often
drives the possible power source.

Low or high reporting frequency: This classification is based on how often the object
should report monitored parameters. A rust sensor may report values once a month. A motion
sensor may report acceleration several hundred times per second.Higher frequencies drive
higher energy consumption, which may create constraints on the possible power source (and
therefore the object mobility) and the transmission range.

Simple or rich data: This classification is based on the quantity of data exchanged at each
report cycle. A humidity sensor in a field may report a simple daily index value (on a binary
scale from 0 to 255), while an engine sensor may report hundreds of parameters, from
temperature to pressure, gas velocity, compression speed, carbon index, and many others.
Richer data typically drives higher power consumption.
This classification is often combined with the previous to determine the object data
throughput (low throughput to high throughput). You may want to keep in mind that
throughput is a combined metric. A medium-throughput object may send simple data at rather
high frequency (in which case the flow structure looks continuous), or may send rich data at
rather low frequency (in which case the flow structure looks bursty).

Report range: This classification is based on the distance at which the gateway is located.
For example, for your fitness band to communicate with your phone, it needs to be located a
few meters away at most. The assumption is that your phone needs to be at visual distance for
you to consult the reported data on the phone screen. If the phone is far away, you typically
do not use it, and reporting data from the band to the phone is not necessary. By contrast, a
moisture sensor in the asphalt of a road may need to communicate with its reader several
hundred meters or even kilometers away.

Object density per cell: This classification is based on the number of smart objects (with a
similar need to communicate) over a given area, connected to the same gate- way. An oil
pipeline may utilize a single sensor at key locations every few miles. By contrast, telescopes
like the SETI Colossus telescope at the Whipple Observatory deploy hundreds, and
sometimes thousands, of mirrors over a small area, each with multiple gyroscopes, gravity,
and vibration sensors.
Layer 2: Communications Network Layer

Access Network Sublayer

There is a direct relationship between the IoT network technology you choose and the type of
connectivity topology this technology allows. Each technology was designed with a certain
number of use cases in mind (what to connect, where to connect, how much data to transport
at what interval and over what distance). These use cases deter- mined the frequency band
that was expected to be most suitable, the frame structure matching the expected data pattern
(packet size and communication intervals), and the possible topologies that these use cases
illustrate.

As IoT continues to grow exponentially, you will encounter a wide variety of applications
and special use cases. For each of them, an access technology will be required. IoT
sometimes reuses existing access technologies whose characteristics match more or less
closely the IoT use case requirements. Whereas some access technologies were developed
specifically for IoT use cases, others were not.

PAN (personal area network): Scale of a few meters. This is the personal space around a
person. A common wireless technology for this scale is Bluetooth.

HAN (home area network): Scale of a few tens of meters. At this scale, common wireless
technologies for IoT include ZigBee and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE).

NAN (neighborhood area network): Scale of a few hundreds of meters. The term NAN is
often used to refer to a group of house units from which data is collected.

FAN (field area network): Scale of several tens of meters to several hundred meters.
FAN typically refers to an outdoor area larger than a single group of house units.
The FAN is often seen as “open space” (and therefore not secured and not controlled). A
FAN is sometimes viewed as a group of NANs, but some verticals see the FAN as a group of
HANs or a group of smaller outdoor cells. As you can see, FAN and NAN may sometimes be
used interchangeably.

LAN (local area network): Scale of up to 100 m. This term is very common in net- working,
and it is therefore also commonly used in the IoT space when standard net- working
technologies (such as Ethernet or IEEE 802.11) are used. Other networking classifications,
such as MAN (metropolitan area network, with a range of up to a few kilometre’s) and WAN
(wide area network, with a range of more than a few kilometre’s), are also commonly used.

Point-to-point topologies: These topologies allow one point to communicate with another
point. This topology in its strictest sense is uncommon for IoT access, as it would imply that
a single object can communicate only with a single gateway.
However, several technologies are referred to as “point-to-point” when each object
establishes an individual session with the gateway. The “point-to-point” concept, in that case,
often refers to the communication structure more than the physical topology.

Point-to-multipoint topologies: These topologies allow one point to communicate with

more than one other point. Most IoT technologies where one or more than one gateways
communicate with multiple smart objects are in this category. However, depending on the
features available on each communicating mode, several subtypes need to be considered. A
particularity of IoT networks is that some nodes (for example, sensors) support both data
collection and forwarding functions, while some other nodes (for example, some gateways)
collect the smart object data, sometimes instruct the sensor to perform specific operations,
and also interface with other net- works or possibly other gateways.

Gateways and Backhaul Sublayer

Data collected from a smart object may need to be forwarded to a central station where data
is processed. As this station is often in a different location from the smart object, data directly
received from the sensor through an access technology needs to be forwarded to another
medium (the backhaul) and transported to the central station. The gateway is in charge of this
inter-medium communication.

Network Transport Sublayer

The previous section describes a hierarchical communication architecture in which a series of
smart objects report to a gateway that conveys the reported data over another medium and up
to a central station. However, practical implementations are often flexible, with multiple
transversal communication paths. For example, consider the case of IoT for the energy grid.
Your house may have a meter that reports the energy consumption to a gateway over a
wireless technology. Other houses in your neighbourhood (NAN) make the same report,
likely to one or several gateways. The data to be transported is small and the interval is large
(for example, four times per hour), resulting in a low- mobility, low-throughput type of data
structure, with transmission distances up to a mile.
Several technologies (such as 802.11ah, 802.15.4, or LPWA) can be used for this collection
segment. Other neighbourhoods may also connect the same way, thus forming a FAN.
Layer 3: Applications and Analytics Layer

Analytics Versus Control Applications

Analytics application: This type of application collects data from multiple smart objects,
processes the collected data, and displays information resulting from the data that was
processed. The display can be about any aspect of the IoT network, from historical reports,
statistics, or trends to individual system states. The important aspect is that the application
processes the data to convey a view of the network that cannot be obtained from solely looking
at the information displayed by a single smart object.

Control application: This type of application controls the behaviour of the smart object or the
behaviour of an object related to the smart object. For example, a pressure sensor may be
connected to a pump. A control application increases the pump speed when the connected sensor
detects a drop in pressure. Control applications are very useful for controlling complex aspects
of an IoT network with a logic that cannot be programmed inside a single IoT object, either
because the configured changes are too complex to fit into the local system or because the
configured changes rely on parameters that include elements outside the IoT object.

Data Versus Network Analytics

Analytics is a general term that describes processing information to make sense of collected
data. In the world of IoT, a possible classification of the analytics function is as follows:

Data analytics: This type of analytics processes the data collected by smart objects and
combines it to provide an intelligent view related to the IoT system. At a very basic level, a
dashboard can display an alarm when a weight sensor detects that a shelf is empty in a store. In a
more complex case, temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, and light levels collected from
thousands of sensors may be combined and then processed to determine the likelihood of a
storm and its possible path. In this case, data processing can be very complex and may combine
multiple changing values over complex algorithms. Data analytics can also monitor the IoT
system itself.
For example, a machine or robot in a factory can report data about its own movements. This data
can be used by an analytics application to report degradation in the movement speeds, which
may be indicative of a need to service the robot before a part breaks.

Network analytics: Most IoT systems are built around smart objects connected to the network.
A loss or degradation in connectivity is likely to affect the efficiency of the system. Such a loss
can have dramatic effects. For example, open mines use wireless networks to automatically pilot
dump trucks. A lasting loss of connectivity may result in an accident or degradation of
operations efficiency (automated dump trucks typically stop upon connectivity loss).
 IoT in Cloud Computing

 One component that improves the success of the Internet of Things is Cloud Computing.
Cloud computing enables users to perform computing tasks using services provided over the
Internet. The use of the Internet of Things in conjunction with cloud technologies has become
a kind of catalyst: the Internet of Things and cloud computing are now related to each other.
These are true technologies of the future that will bring many benefits.

Due to the rapid growth of technology, the problem of storing, processing, and accessing large
amounts of data has arisen. Great innovation relates to the mutual use of the Internet of Things
and cloud technologies. In combination, it will be possible to use powerful processing of sensory
data streams and new monitoring services. As an example, sensor data can be uploaded and
saved using cloud computing for later use as intelligent monitoring and activation using other
devices. The goal is to transform data into insights and thus drive cost-effective and productive
action.
Benefits And Functions of IoT Cloud:
There are many benefits of combining these services -
1. IoT Cloud Computing provides many connectivity options, implying large network access.
People use a wide range of devices to gain access to cloud computing resources: mobile
devices, tablets, laptops. This is convenient for users but creates the problem of the need for
network access points.
2. Developers can use IoT cloud computing on-demand. In other words, it is a web service
accessed without special permission or any help. The only requirement is Internet access.
3. Based on the request, users can scale the service according to their needs. Fast and flexible
means you can expand storage space, edit software settings, and work with the number of
users. Due to this characteristic, it is possible to provide deep computing power and storage.
4. Cloud Computing implies the pooling of resources. It influences increased collaboration and
builds close connections between users.
5. As the number of IoT devices and automation in use grows, security concerns emerge. Cloud
solutions provide companies with reliable authentication and encryption protocols.
6. Finally, IoT cloud computing is convenient because you get exactly as much from the service
as you pay. This means that costs vary depending on use: the provider measures your usage
statistics. A growing network of objects with IP addresses is needed to connect to the Internet
and exchange data between the components of the network.

It is important to note that cloud architecture must be well-designed since reliability, security,
economy, and performance optimization depends upon it. Using well-designed CI/CD pipelines,
structured services, and sandboxed environments results in a secure environment and agile
development.
Comparison of Internet of Things and Cloud Computing:
Cloud is a centralized system helping to transfer and deliver data and files to data centers over
the Internet. A variety of data and programs are easy to access from a centralized cloud system.
The Internet of Things refers to devices connected to the Internet. In the IoT, data is stored in
real-time, as well as historical data. The IoT can analyze and instruct devices to make effective
decisions, as well as track how certain actions function.
Cloud computing encompasses the delivery of data to data centers over the Internet. IBM divides
cloud computing into six different categories:
1. Platform as a Service (PaaS) -
The cloud contains everything you need to build and deliver cloud applications so there is no
need to maintain and buy equipment, software, etc.
2. Software as a Service (SaaS) -
In this case, applications run in the cloud and other companies operate devices that connect to
users' computers through a web browser.
3. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) -
IaaS is an option providing companies with storage, servers, networks and hubs processing
data for each use.
4. Public cloud -
Companies manage spaces and provide users with quick access through the public network.
5. Private cloud -
The same as a public cloud, but only one person has access here, which can be an
organization, an individual company, or a user.
6. Hybrid cloud -
Based on a private cloud, but provides access to a public cloud.
Now, the Internet of Things refers to connecting devices to the Internet. Everyday devices such
as cars and household appliances may have an Internet connection, and with the advancement of
the Internet of Things, more and more devices will join this list.
Pairing with edge computing:
Data processing at the network edge or edge computing is used with IoT solutions and enables
faster processing and response times. To get a better understanding of how this works, consider a
large factory with many implemented IoT sensors. In this situation, it makes sense, before
sending data to the cloud for processing, to aggregate it close to the border to prevent cloud
overload by reducing direct connections.
Data centers with this approach make data processing much faster. Yet, an approach that is only
based on the edge will never provide a complete view of business operations. If there is no cloud
solution, then the factory only controls each unit individually. Also, it has no way of imagining
how these units work in relation to each other. This is why only the combination of the edge and
the cloud will enable businesses to benefit from IoT developments.
The Role of Cloud Computing on the Internet of Things:
Cloud computing works to improve the efficiency of daily tasks in conjunction with the Internet
of Things. Cloud computing is about providing a path for data to reach its destination while the
Internet of Things generates a huge amount of data.
According to Amazon Web Services, there are four benefits of cloud computing:
1. No need to pre-guess infrastructure capacity needs
2. Saves money, because you only need to pay for those resources that you use, the larger the
scale, the more savings
3. In a few minutes, platforms can be deployed around the world
4. Flexibility and speed in providing resources to developers
Thus, the role of cloud computing in IoT is to work together to store IoT data, providing easy
access when needed. It's important to note that cloud computing is an easy way to move large
data packets across the Internet generated by the IoT.

Functional blocks of an IoT ecosystem

IoT systems are composed of a number of building blocks, including sensors/actuators,
connectivity, security, services, etc. The functional blocks are responsible for sensing,
verification, actuation, management, and communication.
These functional blocks are made up of devices that handle interactions between a web server
and the client, enable controls and monitoring functions, manage data transfer, secure the IoT
system through authentication and various purposes, and offer an interface for monitoring and
managing various concepts. Let's gather more information about the IoT Functional Blocks.

Sensor/Actuator block

The sensor/actuator block serves as the data entry point in an IoT system. Sensors collect data
from their surroundings, whereas actuators drive physical processes. Sensors gather data on
temperature, humidity, light, motion, and other variables, whereas actuators turn on lights, open
doors, and control machines. These gadgets work together to collect data and operate in the
physical world.

Connectivity Block

Once the sensor/actuator block has collected data, it must be sent to the remainder of the system.
This is when the connection block enters the picture. The connectivity block is in charge of
creating and managing communication channels amongst IoT system devices. This can be
accomplished with the use of several technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, and cellular
networks.

Data Processing Block

The obtained data is examined and processed in the data processing block. This block is in
charge of filtering out noise and irrelevant data, converting the data into an easily studied format,
and recognizing patterns and anomalies in the data. This block can also execute real-time
analysis, enabling speedy data-driven decisions.

Application Block
The application block is the component of the IoT system that gives value to the end user. This
block is in charge of utilizing the processed data to provide a specified function or service. An
application block, for example, could be used to provide insights into energy usage in a building
or to adjust the temperature in a greenhouse.

Security Block

The security block is in charge of assuring the IoT system's security and protection against illegal
access. This block is in charge of authentication and authorization, as well as data encryption
during transmission and storage. It also handles intrusion detection and response, assisting in the
prevention and mitigation of threats.

Management Block

The management block is in charge of overseeing the overall operation of the IoT system. This
block is capable of handling device configuration, firmware updates, and system monitoring. It
can also give analytics and reporting, allowing system administrators to understand how the
system is operating and find areas for improvement.

Advantages of IoT Functional Blocks

IoT Functional Blocks provide various advantages to enterprises and people interested in
implementing IoT solutions.
These advantages include ?
Scalability

IoT Scalability is built into Functional Blocks, allowing enterprises to add new devices and
services to their IoT system as needed. The capacity to scale assures that an IoT system can grow
and react to changing business needs and future technology.

Interoperability

IoT Functional Blocks is a standardized architecture for developing IoT solutions. This
standardization means that devices and services from various suppliers may function seamlessly
together, enhancing interoperability and lowering integration costs.
Modularity
Because IoT Functional Blocks are modular, they may be swapped, modified, or added as
needed. Because of this versatility, enterprises can select the optimal components for their IoT
system and easily swap out components as needed.

Flexibility

IoT Functional Blocks offer a variety of deployment choices. Depending on their needs,
businesses can implement an IoT system on-premises, in the cloud, or in a hybrid approach.

SENSORS IN IoT
Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.
A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing
(e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or material to detect the
presence of a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like changes
in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.

IOT HARDWARE
Transducer :
 A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.
 It converts one type of energy into another type.
 It might be used as actuator in various systems.
Sensors characteristics :
1. Static
2. Dynamic
1. Static characteristics :
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after steady state
condition.
 Accuracy: Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to the
true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by absolute and
relative errors. Express the correctness of the output compared to a higher prior system.
Absolute error = Measured value - True value
Relative error = Measured value/True value
 Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the
sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.
 Resolution: Resolution is an important specification for selection of sensors. The higher
the resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is called the threshold.
Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
 Precision: It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.
It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
 Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the
system with respect to incremental change in input parameters. It can be found from the
slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the smallest amount of difference
in quantity that will change the instrument's reading.
 Linearity: The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particularly straight line.
Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the
output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions.
A curve's slope resemblance to a straight line describes linearity.
 Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when kept
at that value for a long period of time.
 Repeatability: The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same
conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so as
not to allow significant long-term drift.
Dynamic Characteristics :
Properties of the systems
 Zero-order system: The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It does
not include energy-storing elements.
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.
 First-order system: When the output approaches its final value gradually.
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.
 Second-order system: Complex output response. The output response of the sensor
oscillates before steady state.
Sensor Classification :
 Passive & Active
 Analog & digital
 Scalar & vector
1. Passive Sensor -
Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water level and
temperature sensors.
2. Active Sensor -
Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.
3. Analog Sensor -
The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input parameter.
Ex- Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect.
4. Digital sensor -
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors. Along
with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion. Example -
Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature sensor(DS1620).
5. Scalar sensor -
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the sensor is a
function of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the direction of input
parameters.
Example - temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.
6. Vector sensor -
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and orientation of
input parameter. Example - Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector
sensors.

Types of sensors -

 Electrical sensor :
Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non contact.
Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component complete an electrical
circuit.
Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of either induction for
detecting metals or capacitance for detecting non metals as well.
 Light sensor:
Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.
Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today.
The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the
ambient light i.e when the intensity of light increases, it's resistance decreases and vise versa.
 Touch sensor:
Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch sensor.
It's name suggests that detection of something.
They are classified into two types:
1. Resistive type
2. Capacitive type
Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.
Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.
 Range sensing:
Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the sensing position,
although they can also be used as proximity sensors.
Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range sensing, between a
few millimetres and a few hundred millimetres is carried out using electrical capacitance,
inductance and magnetic technique.
Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various types eg radio
waves, sound waves and lasers.
 Mechanical sensor:
Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a certain amount of
force is required to operate a mechanical switch it is common to use micro-switches.
 Pneumatic sensor:
These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.
The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These cannot be used
where light components may be blown away.
 Optical sensor:
In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light beam which falls
onto a light sensitive device such as a photocell. These are examples of non contact sensors.
Care must be exercised with the lighting environment of these sensors for example optical
sensors can be blinded by flashes from arc welding processes, airborne dust and smoke clouds
may impede light transmission etc.
 Speed Sensor:
Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion is known as
speed sensor .For example - Wind Speed Sensors, Speedometer ,UDAR ,Ground Speed Radar .
 Temperature Sensor:
Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature's measurement as an
electrical signal are termed as temperature sensors .These electrical signals will be in the form
of voltage and is directly proportional to the temperature measurement .
 PIR Sensor:
PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used for the tracking
and measurement of infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view and is also
known as Pyroelectric sensor .It is mainly used for detecting human motion and movement
detection .
 Ultrasonic Sensor:
The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR or RADAR in
which the interpretation of echoes from radio or sound waves to evaluate the attributes of a
target by generating the high frequency sound waves .
ACTUATORS IN IoT
Actuators in IoT include motors, solenoids, hydraulic and pneumatic systems, and other
devices that may control or manipulate physical things.
In this article, we will define actuators, describe their importance in the Internet of Things, and
provide some instances of how they are used.

What Exactly Are Actuators?

A device that turns electrical energy into mechanical energy is known as an actuator. An
actuator, in other terms, is a component that can move or control a mechanism or system.
Actuators are commonly employed in industrial automation, robotics, and other applications
requiring precise mechanical system control. Actuators come in a variety of configurations,
including electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic actuators.

How Do Actuators Function?

Actuators generate mechanical energy by converting electrical energy. Depending on the type of
actuator, this can be accomplished in a variety of ways. An electric actuator, for example, may
use a motor to generate rotational or linear motion. A hydraulic actuator, on the other hand, may
generate linear motion by using a pump and a hydraulic cylinder.
Here's a high?level overview of how actuators function in IoT:
Sensors gather data from the physical world, such as temperature, pressure, or motion.
 Data Processing: An IoT gateway or cloud?based platform processes the data acquired
by sensors.
 Decision Making: Based on the desired consequence or action, the processed data is
assessed and decisions are made.
 Action: Based on the decisions made in step 3, the IoT system sends signals to the
actuators to conduct particular actions. An actuator, for example, may activate a motor to
control the movement of a robotic arm or change the position of a valve to control the
flow of water.
 Feedback: The actuators may provide feedback to the IoT system, such as confirmation
that an operation was successfully done or an error message indicating that an action
could not be completed.

What Role Do Actuators Play in IoT

Actuators are an essential component of the IoT ecosystem. They enable gadgets to interface
with the physical world and are crucial in automation and control. Sensors collect data from the
environment in an IoT system, and actuators use this data to make decisions and conduct actions.
For example, if a temperature sensor detects that a room is becoming too hot, an actuator may
activate the air conditioning to cool it down.

Few Examples of Actuators in Internet of Things

 Smart Home Systems: Actuators are an important part of smart home systems. They let
customers remotely operate various equipment such as lights, heating systems, and
security systems. A smart thermostat, for example, can use temperature sensors to change
the temperature in a home, and an actuator can activate the heating or cooling system as
needed.
 Industrial Automation: Actuators are frequently employed in industrial automation to
control machines and other systems. Hydraulic actuators, for example, might be used to
control the movement of robotic arms in a factory, while electric actuators could be used
to regulate the position of a conveyor belt.
 Agriculture: Actuators are rapidly being employed to automate numerous processes in
agriculture, such as irrigation and harvesting. An actuator, for example, can control the
flow of water in an irrigation system or the position of a robotic arm used to harvest
crops.
 Healthcare: Actuators are employed in a variety of healthcare applications, including
prostheses and medical equipment. An actuator, for example, can regulate the movement
of a prosthetic limb or the location of a surgical tool during treatment.

Limitations and Difficulties

While actuators play an important role in the operation of IoT devices, they also have certain
limitations and issues that must be solved. Here are some of the major constraints and challenges
of employing actuators in IoT:
 Compatibility: Actuators may not be interoperable with all IoT devices and systems,
limiting their efficacy in some applications.
 Precision: Actuators may not always be capable of providing the precise level of control
required for certain applications, such as those requiring high levels of accuracy or
repeatability.
 Power Consumption: Actuators can consume a substantial amount of power, which can
be a problem in IoT systems that rely on battery power or have restricted power supplies.
 Maintenance: Actuators require routine maintenance to guarantee good operation, which
can be time?consuming and costly.
 Cost: Actuators can be expensive, which can make them unsuitable for some
applications.
SMART OBJECTS AND CONNECTING SMART OBJECTS

How do smart objects work?

An intelligent object embeds its own microprocessor to process the data collected and
exchanged. For example, a smart camera can autonomously recognize profiles of people in
its field of view. It does not transmit all video streams to the central monitoring system, but
a simple alert, when necessary.

Smart object and connected object often designate a near reality. These objects collect
data, transmit it and receive it. The difference is in processing capacity: from a simple
threshold crossing test to running complex and evolving algorithms.

Smart objects connect to other objects or integrate a set of devices, also called an IoT
network or the Internet of Things.

Definition of a smart object

Would the smart object be a learning connected object?

In the composition of a connected object, the processing part, carried out by the
microprocessor or microprocessors, can take an increasingly important part, providing the
object with computing and processing power equivalent to a microcomputer. The object
thus becomes more and more "intelligent".

The only limit to this development and its use will be energy autonomy. This is especially
true if the object is to be battery powered for mobile use. On the other hand, if the object
can be electrically powered, nothing stands in the way of making the connected object
increasingly "intelligent".

The object can also be considered intelligent, if it becomes a learner through the use of
artificial intelligence. This is the case, for example, with voice assistants which improve
their technologies and capabilities over time, or even abnormal vibration detectors as part
of the preventive maintenance of industrial machines.

A connected object is characterized by several main functions:

Collect data through sensors: temperature, pressure, location, vibration, air quality ...
Communicate with an IoT platform for possible recordings and processing processing
Take action if necessary: turn on the heating, send an alarm signal, unlock a lock ...
An intelligent object is also capable of connecting with other objects or equipment such as
the smartphone of a home automation system user for heating regulation, lighting, home
security, etc. or even the rugged terminal of a maintenance technician for the supervision of
a production line, quality control ...
In the agricultural world, take the example of an irrigation system for market garden
crops: the watering will be intelligently regulated according to multiple parameters, such
as the nature of the crops, the temperature, the atmospheric pressure, the humidity and the
nature. soils, etc.

How a smart object works

An intelligent object is characterized by its sensors, microprocessor, communication
interfaces and applications.

The object allows the analysis of its environment thanks to numerous sensors capable of
measuring the data necessary for the use of the object. Examples: temperature, movement
or displacement, speed, light intensity, humidity, etc.

Communication interfaces are generally wireless: WiFi network, Bluetooth, RFID, etc.
They allow data to be transmitted to a dedicated computer server.

The smart object processes the information received by a pre-programmed algorithm,

often interacting with other elements of the IoT infrastructure. Data collection and
processing will be carried out via IoT platforms. These platforms will interact with so-
called "big data" analysis tools to facilitate interpretations of large volumes of data from
objects.

Decisions and actions can then be triggered by the object that acts on the world around it:
via switches, valves, motors, alarms, etc.

The management of the resources of the autonomous object concerns its energy supply, its
computing capacity, its storage resources, etc. The energy source can come in different
forms: power supply, battery or cells, energy sensors.

What are the applications of smart objects?

Digital services and solutions are unlimited thanks to the Internet of Things and the
deployment of mobile networks. The deployment of 5G will further accelerate the
development of new connected objects and systems.

When it comes to individuals, smart objects provide more convenience in everyday life.
They save us time, energy and sometimes money. Examples: connected watch, connected
thermostat, connected light bulbs, smart refrigerator, voice assistant ...

Smart objects make it possible to imagine the new cities of tomorrow (smart cities) in a
different way: connected cameras, sensors for measuring air quality, regulation of traffic
according to affluence, management of public lighting with a light sensor , waste container
filling sensors to optimize rounds ...

Geolocation makes it possible to provide real-time information on arrival times for public
transport (bus, tram, train). Signage on smartphones is possible to find an available
parking space, a bicycle or an electric scooter.

In industry: predictive maintenance sensors on equipment, asset tracer, robots. Imagine a

machine capable of transmitting its operating status to teams in real time in order to
ensure maintenance and prevent any risk of breakdown.

In agriculture: weather sensors, connected weather station, soil moisture level, connected
animal collars. The IoT enables better consumption of resources, especially in water
management.

In the health sector: connected blood pressure monitor, augmented reality headset,
connected imaging devices.

In commerce (retail): smart labels, inventory chips, connected lighting, physical distancing
badges, etc.