API RP-571

Damage Mechanisms Affecting Fixed

Equipment in the Refining Industry

Prepared By.
Mohamad Hasaan El-Shafey
 Scope

 This recommended practice covers damage mechanism in

pressure vessels, piping, and tankage.

 provides the fundamental information required for an FFS

assessment performed as per API 579-1/ASME FFS-1 or an
RBI study performed as per API RP 580.

 this RP should not be considered the final technical basis for

damage mechanism assessment and analysis.
 Inspection & monitoring

Prevention

Damage appearance

Affected Equipments
DM section is
subdivided to Critical factors

Affected material

Damage description
  2 Terms and Definitions

• 2.1 Definitions
• austenitic
• metallurgical structure (austenite) normally found in 300 series (SS) and
nickel-based alloys. These materials have a FCC structure and are generally
nonmagnetic.
• austenitic stainless steels
• include Types 304, 304L, 304H, 309, 310, 316, 316L, 316H, 317, 317L, 321,
321H, 347, and 347H. The “L” and “H” suffixes refer to controlled ranges of low
and high carbon content,
• carbon steel
• An alloy consisting primarily of iron (Fe) with a small amount of carbon (C)and
do not have alloying elements intentionally added. small amounts of elements
permitted that can affect corrosion-related properties, hardness after welding,
and toughness.
  2 Terms and Definitions
• duplex stainless steel
• A family of stainless steels that contain a mixed austenitic-ferritic structure
including Alloys 2205, 2304, and 2507.
• ferritic
• structure (ferrite) normally found in carbon and low-alloy steels and many
400 series SS. These materials have a BCC structure and are generally
magnetic.
• nickel-based
• A family of alloys containing nickel as a major alloying element (>30
% Ni)
• heat-affected zone HAZ
• The portion of the base metal adjacent to a weld that has not been melted,
but in which the metallurgical microstructure and mechanical properties
have been changed by the heat of welding,
 ABBREVIATIONS

 ACFM alternating current field measurement

 CH4 – methane. CVN – Charpy v-notch.
 CW – cooling water. EC – eddy current
 EMAT- electromagnetic acoustic transducer
 FCC – fluid catalytic cracker.
 FMR – field metallographic replication.
 H2S – hydrogen sulfide, a poisonous gas.
 HAZ – Heat Affected Zone HB – Brinell hardness number.
 ABBREVIATIONS

 HCO – heavy cycle oil.

 HCGO – heavy coker gas oil.
 HIC – Hydrogen Induced Cracking
 HP – high pressure.
 HPS – high pressure separator.
 HHPS – hot high pressure separator.
 HVGO – heavy vacuum gas oil.
 HSLA – high strength low alloy
 IP – intermediate pressure.
 IRIS – internal rotating inspection system.
 K.O. – knock out, as in K.O. Drum.
 ABBREVIATIONS

 LCGO – light coker gas oil.

 LCO – light cycle oil.
 LP – low pressure.
 LPS – low pressure separator.
 LVGO – light vacuum gas oil.
 MEA – monoethanolamine.
 mpy – mils per year.
 MT – magnetic particle testing.
 PMI – positive materials identification.
 ABBREVIATIONS

• RFEC – remote field eddy current testing.

• SCC – stress corrosion cracking.
• SOHIC – Stress Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking
• SS – Stainless Steel.
• SW – sour water.
• SWS – sour water stripper.
• SWUT – shear wave ultrasonic testing.
• TOFD – Time of flight diffraction
• VDU – vacuum distillation unit.
• WFMT – wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing.
 Damage Mechanisms
• 3.3 Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking

• 3.8 Atmospheric Corrosion

• 3.11 Brittle Fracture

• 3.14 Caustic Corrosion

• 3.15 Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking

• 3.17 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking

• 3.20 Cooling Water Corrosion

• 3.22 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)

 Damage Mechanisms
• 3.27 Erosion/Erosion-Corrosion

• 3.36 High-temperature Hydrogen Attack

• 3.37 Hydrochloric Acid Corrosion

• 3.43 Mechanical Fatigue

• 3.58 Sour Water Corrosion (Acidic)

• 3.61 Sulfidation

• 3.67 Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SCC)

 Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
Description of Damage
cracking under the combined action of tensile stress and corrosion in
aqueous alkanolamine systems used to remove/absorb H2S and/or
CO2 and their mixtures from various gas and liquid hydrocarbon
streams.
b) Amine cracking is a form of alkaline stress corrosion cracking
(ASCC).
mostly found at or adjacent to non- PWHT’d carbon steel weldments or
in highly cold worked parts.

Affected Materials
Carbon steel and low alloy steels.
 Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking

Critical Factors
 tensile stress, the type of amine, and temperature.
 residual stresses from welding or cold working that have not
been removed by an effective stress-relieving heat treatment.
 Cracking is more likely to occur in MEA and DEA services,
 PWHT is now commonly recommended for all lean amine
systems (excluding fresh amine) at all operating temperatures,
regardless of amine type. Some refiners also PWHT’d rich
amine service equipment, Refer to API 945 for guidelines on
PWHT for various amine services
 Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
Critical Factors
In rich amine services in H2S removal systems, the H2S helps
form an iron sulfide (FeS) film on steel surfaces that helps
impede amine SCC. Cracking in rich amine services is most
often associated with wet H2S.
Cracking can occur in non-PWHT’d piping and equipment as
the result of exposure to steam out and to short-term amine
carryover.
Amine concentration does not have a significant effect on the
cracking.
 Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
 Affected Units or Equipment

All non-PWHT carbon steel piping and equipment in lean

amine service including , absorbers, strippers, regenerators
and heat exchangers as well as any equipment subject to
amine carryover.
 Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
Appearance of Damage

 surface cracking initiate on the ID of piping and equipment primarily in

the weld HAZ but has also been found in weld metal and high stress
areas adjacent to the HAZ.

Cracking typically parallel to the weld. In weld metal, the cracks are
either transverse or longitudinal with the weld.

 by metallographic analysis, the cracking is typically intergranular,

oxide filled with some branching
Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking

Appearance of Damage
Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
Appearance of Damage
 Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
Prevention/Mitigation
a) Carbon steel welds in piping and equipment should be
stress relieved in accordance with API 945 and NACE
SP0472. The recommended minimum stress-relief
temperature is 1175 ± 25 °F (635 ± 15 °C).
For local PWHT, recommended heat treatment band width is
listed in NACE SP0472 with reference to WRC 452.
b) Consider using solid or clad stainless steel or other
corrosion-resistant alloys in lieu of carbon steel.
c) Thoroughly water wash non-PWHT’d carbon steel piping
and equipment prior to welding, heat treatment, or steam out.
 Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
 Inspection and Monitoring
WFMT , ACFM , ECT For surface breaking cracks

 PT is usually not effective in finding tight and/or oxude filled cracks

and should not be used.

Angle beam SWUT & PAUT typically used for piping

AET used for monitoring crack growth and locating growing cracks.
 Atmospheric Corrosion
Description of Damage
•occurs from moisture associated with atmospheric conditions.
• Marine environments and moist polluted industrial environments with
airborne contaminants are most severe.
•Dry rural environments cause very little corrosion.

Affected Materials

• Carbon steel, low alloy steels and copper alloyed aluminum.

 Atmospheric Corrosion
• Critical Factors
• Marine environments are very corrosive (20 mpy)
• Industrial environments contain acids or sulfur (5-10 mpy).
• Inland locations are moderately corrosive (~1-3 mpy).
• Dry rural environments have very low corrosion (<1 mpy).
• Corrosion rates increase up to 250°F (121°C).
• Above 250°F (121°C), surfaces are usually too dry for
corrosion to occur except under insulation
• Chlorides, H2S, fly ash from cooling tower, furnace stacks
accelerate corrosion.
• Bird turds can also cause accelerated corrosion.
 Atmospheric Corrosion
Affected Units or Equipment

•Unpainted, un-insulated carbon steel and low-alloy steel piping and

equipment operating below 250 °F (120 °C) where moisture can contact
the surface.

• Equipment shut down or idled for prolonged periods unless properly

mothballed.

•Bimetallic connections such as copper to aluminum

electrical connections
 Atmospheric Corrosion
Appearance

• The attack will be general or localized, depending upon coating

condition and whether the moisture is trapped.

• Localized coating failures will tend to promote corrosion.

• Metal loss may not be visually evident, although normally a distinctive

iron oxide (red rust) scale forms.
Atmospheric Corrosion
Appearance
 Atmospheric Corrosion

Prevention / Mitigation

• Surface preparation and proper coating application

are critical for long-term protection in corrosive
environments.
 Atmospheric Corrosion
Inspection and Monitoring

• VT includes direct/line-of-sight and indirect methods using a

camera, mirror, laser scanning, and/or structured white light
imaging with pit gages.
• UT straight beam or angle beam (SWUT or PAUT)

•RT include (film based), digital, or CR , profile RT.

•ECT include a screening technique such as (PEC).

 Brittle Fracture
• Description of Damage

• Sudden rapid fracture under stress (residual or applied)

where the material exhibits little or no ductility or plastic
deformation.

• Affected Materials
• Carbon and LA steels specially older steels.
• 400 Series SS are also susceptible.
• materials susceptible to an embrittling mechanism such as
temper embrittlememt
 Brittle Fracture
• Critical Factors

• Material fracture toughness (resistance to crack like flaws)

• Size, shape and stress concentration effect of flaw
• Amount of residual and applied stresses on the flaw.
• Presence of embrittling phases.
• Steel cleanliness (level of S, P, and other impurity elements)
and grain size
• Thicker material sections have a lower resistance to brittle
fracture due to higher constraint which increases triaxial
stresses at the crack tip.
• Occurs only at temperatures below (DBTT )
 Brittle Fracture
• Affected Units or Equipment

• Equipment manufactured per ASME Section VIII, Division 1,

prior to December 1987 Addenda
• Equipment made per same code after this date were subject
to UCS 66 (impact exemption curves).
• During startup, shutdown

• During auto-refrigeration event.

• During ambient temperature hydro testing due to high
stresses and low toughness at the testing temperature.
 Brittle Fracture
• Appearance of Damage

• Cracks will typically be straight, non-branching will

exhibit visible “chevron markings” that point back to the
crack origin point.

• Microscopically, fracture surface will be composed

largely of cleavage, with limited intergranular cracking
 Brittle Fracture
• Prevention / Mitigation
• For new equipment

• Using fully killed, fine grain steel with austenite grain size finer
than 6 (McQuaid Ehn Method) will achieve the desired
toughness in many situations.
• Using Materials with controlled chemical composition, special
heat treatment and impact test verification
 Brittle Fracture
• Prevention / Mitigation
• For existing materials
• Assessment accordance with API 579-1 /ASME FFS-1 ,
Section 3, Level 1 or 2.
• Minimizing pressure at ambient temperatures during startup
and shutdown, not hydrotesting at too low a temperature
• pressure vessel can also be re-rated to a lower (MAWP) and
resulting new, higher (MDMT),
• Selecting material with good toughness, e.g. low-temperature
ASTM/ASME grade of steel (often containing a few percent of
nickel) or austenitic (300 series) SS,.
 Brittle Fracture
• Inspection and Monitoring

• Not normally used to mitigate brittle fracture.

• Susceptible vessels should be inspected for pre-

existing flaws/defects using (MT), PT, and/or UT, as
applicable.
 Caustic Corrosion
• Description of Damage

• Localized corrosion due to the concentration of caustic

(NaOH or KOH ) or alkaline salts that occurs under
evaporative or high heat transfer conditions.

• Affected Materials
• Primarily carbon steel, low alloy steels and 300 Series SS.
• 300 series SS is generally resistant to caustic corrosion until
passivity is damaged, which can occur in the approximate
temperature range of 160 °F to 210 °F (70 °C to 100 °C),
depending on the concentration.
 Caustic Corrosion

• Critical Factors

• Caustic is added for neutralization , removal of S and

Cl
• Added to BFW at low concentrations.
• Alkaline salts enter process streams through leaks in
condensers or process equipment.
• Caustic become concentrated by DNB, evaporation
and deposition.
 Caustic Corrosion
• Critical Factors
• In high-solution-strength caustic, temperatures above
about 170 °F (75 °C), depending on the caustic
concentration, will cause general corrosion of carbon
steel.

• Some contaminants, such as chlorides, are known

to increase the corrosivity of caustic solutions.

• Heat tracing may sometimes contribute to this

problem.
 Caustic Corrosion
• Affected Units or Equipment
• Steam generating equipment including heat
exchangers.
• Crude unit.
• Preheat exchangers, furnace tubes and transfer lines,
unless the caustic is effectively mixed in the oil stream.
• Units that use caustic for removing S.
• Heat-traced tanks used for caustic storage and caustic
feed equipment if temperatures get too high.
 Caustic Corrosion

• Appearance of Damage
• Caustic gouging is typically localized metal loss in
form of Grooves in a boiler tube or locally thinned
areas under deposits
• In vertical tubes, circumferential groove and
longitudinal grooves In horizontal or sloped tubes.
• Corrosion of carbon steel in high-concentration
caustic at elevated temperatures will be generalized
but likely confined to the location of the high
temperature, e.g. next to heat tracing.
 Caustic Corrosion

• Prevention / Mitigation
• In steam generating equipment proper design.

• Reducing free caustic by ensuring water flow, burner

management to minimize hot spots on heater tubes, minimize
ingress of alkaline producing salts in condensers.

• Proper mixing and dilution of caustic to avoid high

concentration on hot metal surfaces.

• Alloy 400 have much lower corrosion rates.

 Caustic Corrosion
• Inspection and Monitoring
• UT thickness for general corrosion
• Localized Corrosion—Manual UT, including UT
scanning, or AUT can be used.
• Angle beam (SWUT or PAUT) or TOFD to
determine the extent of localized corrosion.
• When internal access is not available (e.g. steam
equipment, tubing, small-diameter equipment, or
equipment with ports), VT may be performed using a
boroscope.
 Caustic SCC (Caustic Embrittlement)
Description of Damage

# Surface-initiated cracks that occur in piping and

equipment exposed to caustic, primarily adjacent to
non-PWHT welds.

Affected Materials

# Carbon , low alloy steels and 300 Series SS

# Nickel base alloys are more resistant.
 Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking
• Critical Factors

• Occur at low caustic levels if a concentrating mechanism is

present. (50 to 100 ppm sufficient to cause cracking.)
• Stresses residual from welding or cold working ( bending and
forming).
• Stresses approaching yield are required for SCC or low
relative to yield, but considered more rare
• # Concentration due to wet and dry conditions, hot spots or
high temperature steam out.
• steam tracing or heat tracing design of non-PWHT’d piping
and equipment.
 Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking

• Affected Units or Equipment

• Equipment handles caustic for neutralization in sulfuric acid ,

including H2S removal units, alkylation units and HF
alkylation units.
• Caustic injected in crude tower for chloride control.

• Heat-traced piping or equipment and during steam cleaning .

• BFW and can result in caustic embrittlement of boiler tubes

that alternate between wet and dry conditions due to
overfiring.
 Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking
 Appearance of Damage
 Cracks parallel to the weld , in the weld deposit or HAZ.
 Surface cracks sometimes described as a spider web of
small cracks which often initiate at or interconnect with weld
flaws (stress raisers).
 Cracks are typically branched and In welded carbon steel take a
network of very fine intergranular, oxide-filled cracks.
 Cracking in 300 Series SS is typically transgranular but can be
intergranular even in non-sensitized Material and is very difficult
to recognized from Cl-SCC.
 nickel-based alloys has been observed as either intergranular or
transgranular .
 Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking
• Prevention / Mitigation

• PWHT at 1150°F (621°C) for carbon steel minimum with a

minimum holding time of 1 hr

• 300 Series SS offer little resistance over CS.

• Nickel base alloys required at higher temperatures 604 °F

(318 °C referred to as molten caustic cracking.

• Steam-out of non-PWHT’d carbon steel should be avoided.

 Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking
• Prevention / Mitigation
• Water washing before steam-out. Where steam-out is
required, low-pressure steam should be used for short time.

• Proper design and operation of the injection system

• soda ash (sodium carbonate) solution used as a protective

measure against (PASCC) in 300 series SS equipment is
drained prior to heating up as this soda ash can result in
caustic SCC of 300 series SS as well as Alloy 800 and Alloy
825 as the water is boiled away.
 Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking

• Inspection and Monitoring

• Crack detection is best by WFMT,EC , ACFM.

• PT not effective for finding tight, scale-filled cracks and
should not be used as the only means of detection.
• Fine cracks difficult to find with RT.
• ABUT (SWUT and PAUT) can be effective to detect and size
cracks
• AET can be used for monitoring crack growth.
Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking (Cl-SCC)
Description of Damage

• Surface initiated cracks on 300 Series SS and some nickel

base alloys under the combined action of tensile stress ,
temperature ,and aqueous chloride environment.
Affected Materials

• All 300 Series SS are highly susceptible.

• Duplex SS are more resistant.
• Nickel base alloys are highly resistant.
 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking

• Critical Factors
• Increasing temperatures and chloride levels
• No practical lower limit for chlorides exists because the
potential for chlorides to concentrate.
• PH values above 2 and above 140F (60C),
• At lower pH values, uniform corrosion generally occur
• SCC tendency decreases toward the alkaline pH region.
• Nickel content of 8% to 12%. nickel contents above 35%
highly resistant and above 45% nearly immune.
• Expansion bellows, are highly susceptible to cracking.
• Oxygen dissolved in the water accelerates SCC
Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking (Cl-SCC)

Affected Units or Equipment

□ All 300 Series SS piping and pressure vessel.
□ Water-cooled condensers and in crude tower overhead
condensers.
□ Drains in HPU during startup/shutdown if not properly purged.
□ Insulated surfaces when insulation gets wet. When operate
from 140 °F (60 °C) to 400 °F (205 °C).
□ Bellows and instrument tubing.
□ Boiler drain lines.
localized Cl− SCC occur in exchanger tube bundles where fluid
temperature inside the tubes above the water dew point.
 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking
Appearance of Damage
• Surface cracks from the process side or externally
under insulation.(spider web or craze/cracked on the
surface.)
• typically branched Transgranular Sometimes
intergranular in sensitized 300 SS .
• Cl− SCC in nickel-based alloys, appears similar to Cl−
SCC in stainless steel.
•Fracture surfaces have a brittle appearance.
 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking

• Prevention / Mitigation
• suitable coating should be applied to SS piping and equipment
prior to insulating.
• Shrink-wrapped PVC labels, coatings, or label adhesives with
high levels of chlorides or other halogen ions should be
avoided.
• Using resistant materials of construction such as carbon and
400 series SS
• When hydro testing, use low chloride content water and dry
quickly.
• Avoid stagnant regions where chlorides can concentrate .
 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking
• Prevention / Mitigation

• Stress relief of 300 Series SS reduce residual stresses.

However, possible sensitization , increasing susceptibility to
PASCC, distortion problems and stress relaxation cracking.

• Avoid exchanger designs with 300 series SS steel tubes and a

high delta T between the shell and tube.

• Avoid contact with high-chloride water run-off that can occur

with the use of salts for snow and ice melting.
 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking

• Inspection and Monitoring

• VT can be used to find advanced stages of cracking.
• PT can be used. However, extremely fine cracks may be
difficult to detect with PT.
• ECT can be used on condenser tubes, piping and
pressure vessels.
• Angle beam UT (SWUT and PAUT) for crack detection;
however, detection will be difficult due to the craze-
cracked, multi-branched cracks.
• RT is not sufficiently sensitive to detect cracks except in
advanced stages.
 Cooling Water Corrosion

• Description of Damage

• Corrosion of carbon steels and other metals caused by

dissolved salts, gases, organic compounds or microbiological
activity.

• Affected Materials

• Carbon steel, all grades of SS , copper, aluminum, titanium

and nickel base alloys.
 Cooling Water Corrosion
• Critical Factors
• Increasing CW temperatures increase fouling .
• Increasing O content increase carbon steel
2

corrosion rates.
• Above 140°F (60°C), a scaling potential with fresh
water
• Brackish and salt water above 115°F (46°C) cause
scaling.
• Velocities below 3 fps (1 m/s) can cause fouling
• 300 Series SS suffer pitting, crevice corrosion and
SCC in fresh, brackish and salt water systems.
 Cooling Water Corrosion
Critical Factors
• Copper/zinc alloys suffer dezincification and suffer
SCC if any ammonia or ammonium compounds are
present .

• ERW carbon steel tubes may suffer severe weld

and/or HAZ corrosion in fresh and/or brackish water.

• Titanium suffer severe hydriding when connected to

more anodic material above 165 °F (75 °C).
 Cooling Water Corrosion

.Affected Units or Equipment

• Water-cooled heat exchangers and cooling towers

 Cooling Water Corrosion
• Appearance of Damage
• General corrosion, pitting , MIC, SCC and fouling.
• General or uniform in carbon steel with dissolved oxygen
• Localized corrosion from under deposit, crevice or MIC.
• Wavy or smooth corrosion at nozzle and tube inlets.
• In ERW weld grooving along fusion lines.
 Cooling Water Corrosion

• Prevention / Mitigation
• best managed by Proper design, operation and chemical
treatment of CWS.
• Make inlet temperatures of water-cooled exchangers below
140°F (60°C).
• Min and max water velocities must maintained, particularly in
salt water.
• Periodic cleaning of tube ID’s and OD’s .
• Cooling water should be on tube side to minimize stagnant
areas.
• Installation of sacrificial anodes on the cooling water side of
water-cooled heat exchangers
 Cooling Water Corrosion
• Inspection and Monitoring
• Monitoring, pH, O2 content, biocide residual , CW outlet
temperatures, contamination and process leaks.
• Periodic calculation of U-factors (heat exchanger performance
measurement) will provide information on scaling and fouling.
• ER probes, or online monitoring sensors, to give indication of
increased corrosion rates
• EC or IRIS inspection of tubes.
• Splitting representative tubes.
• RFT is commonly used for inspection of ferrous (carbon steel)
tubes to detect and size corrosion and pitting as well as baffle
cuts.
 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)

Description of Damage

• Corrosion resulting from water trapped under insulation or

fireproofing.

Affected Materials

• Carbon, low alloy steels, 300 Series SS and duplex SS.

 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)

Critical Factors
 10°F (–12°C) to 350°F (175°C) for carbon and low alloy
 140ºF (60°C) to 350°F (175°C) for austenitic and SS
• For duplex stainless steel,280 °F (140 °C) to 350 °F (175 °C).
 Equipment that operates below the water dew point tends to
condense water on the metal surface
 Insulation that hold moisture (wick).
• (intermittent service) can increase corrosion.
• Insulation contains chlorides.
 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)

Critical Factors
• Plants located in high annual rainfall or warmer, marine
locations are more prone to CUI than plants in cooler, drier,
mid-continent locations.

• Environments that provide airborne contaminants such as

chlorides (e.g. from marine environments or cooling tower
drift) or SO (e.g. from stack emissions) can accelerate
2

corrosion.
 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
Affected Units or Equipment

• Equipment with damaged insulation or protrusions or at insulation

termination points such as flanges.

• Insulation support rings welded directly to the vessel wall (no

standoff); particularly around ladder and platform clips, and lifting
lugs, nozzles and stiffener rings.

• 300 series SS equipment insulated with older calcium silicate

insulation, which is known to contain high levels of chlorides, can
suffer pitting, crevice corrosion, and Cl− SCC.
 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
Appearance of Damage

• For Carbon and low alloy steels rough, uneven, somewhat

pitted appearance, usually covered with a loose, flaky, non-
protective scale attached
•pitting ,crevice corrosion and SCC for 300 series SS.
•In some cases, carbuncle type pitting
 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)

• Prevention / Mitigation
• Coating and maintaining the Insulation sealing to prevent
moisture ingress.
• Flame-sprayed aluminum coatings used on carbon steels.

• Thin aluminum foil wrapped on SS.

• Closed-cell foam glass materials will hold less water
• Low chloride insulation should be used on 300 Series SS.

• Types of open cell insulation that limit and delay water ingress.

• Insulation with added corrosion inhibitor

 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)

Inspection and Monitoring

looking for evidence of insulation damage, signs of
water penetration and rust in gravity drain areas.

 In some instances, insulation “windowing” can be

used.
 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)

Inspection and Monitoring

methods can be used to identify either wet insulation
or CUI damage under the insulation without removing
the insulation;
GWT;
 RT (including profile, real-time, and digital);
PEC;
neutron backscatter (for identifying wet insulation);
infrared thermography imaging (for identifying wet
insulation).
 Erosion/Erosion – Corrosion
Description of Damage
•Erosion is accelerated mechanical removal of surface due to
impact from solids, liquids, vapor or any combination .

• Erosion-corrosion is corrosion contributes to erosion by

removing protective films or scales

•Affected Materials

• All metals, alloys and refractory.

 Erosion/Erosion – Corrosion
Critical Factors

 Pure erosion (abrasive wear) is rare.

 Velocity, concentration , size and hardness of impacting
medium ,hardness and corrosion resistance of material, and
angle of impact.
 Softer alloys such as copper and aluminum subject to severe
metal loss under high velocity conditions.
 Increasing hardness of metal substrate is not always improve
resistance to erosion, particularly where corrosion exist.
 Temperature and pH.
 Erosion/Erosion – Corrosion

Affected Units or Equipment

•Catalyst heat exchanger tubing
•FCC reactor/regenerator and catalyst handling equipment.
•Crude and vacuum unit piping and vessels exposed to
naphthenic acids in some crude oils . metal loss depending
on temperature, velocity, sulfur content and TAN level.
•HPU reactor piping subject to erosion-corrosion by
ammonium bisulfide.
•In coker heaters in both delayed and fluidized bed cokers.
And it causes “wear” on pumps , compressors,
•Boiler water circuits can suffer “flow accelerated corrosion”
(FAC)
 Erosion/Erosion – Corrosion
Appearance of Damage

• localized loss in thickness in the form of pits, grooves,

gullies, waves, rounded holes and valleys. often exhibit a
directional pattern.
 Erosion/Erosion – Corrosion

• Prevention / Mitigation

• Increasing the pipe diameter to decrease velocity;

streamlining bends to reduce impingement; increasing the
wall thickness; and using impingement baffles.
• Using harder alloys
• Using erosion resistant refractories in cyclones and slide
valves
• Best mitigated by Using corrosion-resistant alloys and/or
altering the process environment to reduce corrosivity, for
example, deaeration, condensate injection or the addition of
inhibitors.
 Erosion/Erosion – Corrosion
Inspection and Monitoring
• UT grid or automated scan to determine the extent of
erosion

• RT profile used to detect areas of erosion.

•Permanently mounted thickness monitoring sensors

• IR scans are used to detect refractory loss on stream.
• Gouging or grooving along the bottom of a line and can
be found by screening techniques [e.g. GWT, saturated
low-frequency eddy current (SLOFEC), or X-ray crawler],
 High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
• Description of Damage
• results from exposure to hydrogen at elevated temperatures
and pressures.
• The hydrogen reacts with carbides in steel to form methane
(CH4) which cannot diffuse through the steel.
• Methane pressure builds up, forming bubbles or cavities,
microfissures and fissures that may combine to form cracks.

• Affected Materials
• carbon steel, C-0.5Mo, Mn-0.5Mo, 1Cr-0.5Mo, 1.25Cr-0.5Mo,
2.25Cr-1Mo, 2.25Cr-1Mo-V, 3Cr-1Mo
High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
• Critical Factors

• Incubation period is the time period after which enough damage

has occurred may vary from hours at very severe conditions to
many years.
• Increase Cr and Mo content in steel increase the resistance
• Stress-relieving carbon steel welds by PWHT is known to reduce
susceptibility to HTHA.
• RP 941, is a set of curves that show the combined temperature
and hydrogen partial pressure safe operating limits for carbon
steel and low-alloy steels.
 High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
• Affected Units

• HPU, such as hydrotreaters (desulfurizers) and HCU, CR,

hydrogen producing units

• Boiler tubes in very high pressure steam service.

 High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
• Appearance of Damage

• In early stages of HTHA, bubbles/cavities can be detected in

samples by a SEM and metallography
• In later stages of damage, decarburization and/or fissures can
be seen by examining samples under microscope and may be
seen by in-situ metallography.
• Cracking and fissuring are intergranular and occur adjacent to
pearlite (iron carbide) areas in carbon steels along HAZ and
fusion line
• Blistering may be visible to nicked eye.
High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
• Prevention/Mitigation

• Use Cr-Mo alloy steels to increase carbide stability thereby

minimizing methane formation. Other carbide stabilizing
elements include tungsten and vanadium.
• 0.5 Mo alloy steels, not recommended in hot hydrogen
services. ( removed from API 941 curve in 1990)
• 300 Series SS overlay and/or roll bond clad where bonded
SS overlay or cladding will decrease the hydrogen partial
pressure on underlying base metal
• PWHT
High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
• Inspection and Monitoring
• Automated ultrasonic backscatter testing (AUBT) and
angle beam spectral analysis (ABSA) have had some
success finding fissuring,

• TOFD and PAUT have shown promise in finding surface-

connected and internal damage.

• Ultrasonic attenuation and velocity ratio have been

found to be unreliable techniques for HTHA detection
and should not be used as primary inspection methods.
 High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
• Inspection and Monitoring
• VT for blisters on the inside surface may indicate methane
formation.
• FMR can detect micro-voids, fissures, and
decarburization, it is best in areas of known HTHA
damage and is generally not relied upon as the primary
tool for damage detection
• WFMT, PT, or MT, are generally not useful for HTHA
inspection except where cracking has reached the surface
• AET is not a proven method for the detection of damage.
 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Corrosion

• Description of Damage

• Causes both general and localized corrosion and is very

aggressive to most common materials.

• Damage associated with dew point corrosion

• Affected Materials

• All materials of construction used in refineries.

 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Corrosion
• Critical Factors
• Increasing HCl concentration and temperature.
• Hydrogen chloride gas is normally not corrosive, but
becomes very corrosive with water and form HCL acid.

• Carbon and low alloy steels are subject to excessive

corrosion when exposed to any concentration of HCl acid that
produces at pH below about 4.5.

• 300 and 400 series SS are not resistant to HCl at any

concentration or temperature.
 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Corrosion
Critical Factors
• Alloy 400, titanium alloys have good resistance to dilute HCl
acid .

• The presence of oxidizing agents (oxygen, ferric and cupric

ions) will increase the corrosion rate, particularly for alloy 400
and Alloy B-2.

• Titanium performs well in oxidizing conditions but fails rapidly

in dry HCl service.
 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Corrosion

• Affected Units or Equipment

• Atmospheric tower overhead system, and vacuum ejector

and condensing equipment at the top of vacuum tower.

• Feed and fractionation section of HPU.

• Regeneration system, stabilizer tower, debutanizer tower

and feed/preheat exchangers in CR Units .
 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Corrosion
• Appearance of Damage

• Carbon and low alloy steels suffer general uniform thinning,

localized corrosion or under deposit attack.

• 300 and 400 Series SS will often suffer pitting attack and 300
Series SS may experience chloride SCC.
 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Corrosion
• Prevention/Mitigation
• Obtain target 20 ppm or fewer chlorides in the overhead
accumulator water in desalting unit.
• Upgrading carbon steel to nickel base alloys or titanium
• Water washing can be added to quench the overhead stream
and to help dilute the condensing HCL acid.
• Caustic injection downstream of desalter to reduce the
amount of HCl.
• Combinations of ammonia, neutralizing amines and filming
amines can be injected in the atmospheric tower overhead
line before the water dewpoint.
 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Corrosion
• Inspection and Monitoring
• Locally thinned areas can be found using AUT scanning
methods or profile RT.
• The pH of water in boot of atmospheric tower overhead
accumulator is normally checked regularly .
• By VT characterized by orange-yellow discoloration of the
affected material with scale buildup
• Corrosion probes/coupons for the rate and extent of
damage.
• Permanently mounted thickness monitoring sensors can be
used.
 Mechanical Fatigue
Description of Damage

•Sudden unexpected failure occurs due to cyclical stresses

(below the yield strength) for an extended period,

Affected Materials

• All engineering alloys.

 Mechanical Fatigue
• Critical Factors
• Notches such as Key holes ; Weld joint; Grinding marks;
Lips; Thread root notches.
• For titanium, carbon and low alloy steel, number of cycles to
fatigue fracture decreases with stress amplitude until an
endurance limit reached.
• The ratio of endurance limit over UTS is typically
between 0.4 and 0.5.
• Austenitic SS and aluminum do not have an endurance limit
,fatigue limit defined by the number of cycles at a given
stress amplitude.
• Desired number of cycles necessary in a component’s
lifetime typically 10⁶ to 10⁷ cycles.
 Mechanical Fatigue
• Critical Factors

• Inclusions found in metal can have an accelerating

effect on fatigue cracking. (older, “dirty” steels or
weldments)

• finer-grained microstructures tend to perform better

than coarse grained. Heat treatments such as
quenching and tempering can improve fatigue
resistance of carbon and low-alloy steels.
 Mechanical Fatigue
Affected Units or Equipment
o Coke drums, auxiliary boiler, Quench nozzle.

o Pressure Swing Absorbers on hydrogen purification units.

o Rotating shafts on centrifugal pumps and compressors.

o Socket weld and Small diameter piping that show vibration
from adjacent equipment and/or wind.
o High pressure drop control valves or steam reducing stations
can cause vibration in connected piping.
o Heat exchanger tubes that may be susceptible to vortex
shedding
 Mechanical Fatigue
Appearance of Damage

• “clam shell” type fingerprint that has concentric rings called

“beach marks” emanating from the crack initiation site.

• Cracks resulting from cyclical overstress result in a fatigue

failure with multiple points of nucleation and hence multiple
“clam shell” fingerprints.
• These multiple nucleation sites, often called “ratchet
markings,” are the result of microscopic yielding that occurs
when the component is momentarily cycled above its yield
strength
 Mechanical Fatigue
Appearance of Damage
• .
 Mechanical Fatigue
• Prevention / Mitigation

• minimize stress concentration is the best defence.

• Design fatigue life sufficient for its intended cyclic service.
• Allow for a radius along edges and corners.
• Minimize grinding marks, nicks and gouges on metal
surface
• Insure good fit up and smooth transitions for welds.
• Minimize weld defects witch accelerate fatigue cracking.
• Remove any burrs or lips caused by machining.
• Use low stress stamps and marking tools.
 Mechanical Fatigue
 Inspection and Monitoring
 PT, MT ( includind WFMT )
 Angle beam (SWUT and PAUT) can be used to detect
fatigue cracks at known or suspected areas
 VT of small diameter piping to detect oscillation or other
cyclical movement that could lead to cracking.
 Vibration monitoring of rotating equipment to help detect
shafts that may be out of balance.

 Compression wave UT can detect cracking in bolts.

 Sour Water Corrosion (Acidic)
• Description of Damage

• Corrosion of steel due to acidic sour water containing H2S

at PH between 4.5 and 7.0. (CO2) may be present.
• SWs containing ammonia, chlorides, or cyanides, are outside
the scope of this section.
• Affected Materials

• Primarily affects carbon steel.

 Sour Water Corrosion
• Critical Factors
• H2S concentration in the SW is dependent on the H2S partial
pressure in the gas phase
• Increasing of H2S tend to decrease solution pH down to 4.5.
• Above pH 4.5, protective thin iron sulfide layer limits the
corrosion rate.
• Above pH 4.5,a thicker porous sulfide film layer can promote
pitting under sulfide deposits, this does not affect the general
corrosion rate.
• The presence of air or oxidants may increase the corrosion
and usually produces pitting or under deposit attacks.
 Sour Water Corrosion
• Affected Units or Equipment

• Overhead systems of FCC and coker gas fractionation plants

• Appearance of Damage

• Typically general thinning. However, localized corrosion or

localized under deposit attack can occur, especially if oxygen
is present.
• 300 Series SS are susceptible to pitting attack and may
experience crevice corrosion and/or chloride SCC
 Sour Water Corrosion
• Prevention / Mitigation
• Process monitoring H2S content, pH, chloride and cyanide
content, temperature, fluid velocity, and O2 concentration
• 300 Series SS can be used below 140◦F (60◦C) where
Chloride SCC is not likely.
• Copper and nickel alloys are generally not susceptible to
acid sour water corrosion.
• Water wash injection into FCC overheads and coker light
ends units dissolves and dilutes corrodents like H S and
2

cyanide (CN ). Additional injection of a polysulfide solution

−

with the water wash helps to convert cyanides into a less

harmful compound.
 Sour Water Corrosion
• Inspection and Monitoring

• Permanently mounted thickness monitoring sensors

• Locally thinned areas can be found using scanning UT or

profile RT.

• Corrosion probes may provide misleading data due to

formation of FeS scale on the probe
 Sulfidation
Description of Damage

• Corrosion resulting from alloy reaction with sulfur compounds

in high temperature environments.

Affected Materials

• Carbon and low alloy steels, 300 and 400 Series SS

• Nickel base alloys Above 1193 °F (645 °C),
• Copper base alloys form sulfide at lower temperatures than
carbon steel.
 Sulfidation
• Critical Factors

• silicon content of carbon steel less than 0.10 %

• In iron-based alloys begins above 500°F (260°C).
• Increasing Cr content significantly increases resistance
• 300 Series SS and Ni base , are highly resistant by
Increasing the chromium content significantly increases
resistance to sulfidation.
• Primarily caused by H2S result of the thermal
decomposition of sulfur compounds at high temperatures.
 Sulfidation
Affected Units or Equipment

•Crude, FCC, coker, vacuum, visbreaker and HPU

• Heaters fired with oil, gas, coke depending on sulfur levels

in the fuel.

•Coker heaters tubes fabricated from higher-nickel alloys

such as Alloy 800H operates above 1193 °F (645 °C)
 Sulfidation
Appearance of Damage
•Uniform thinning but can also occur as localized corrosion or high
velocity erosion-corrosion damage.
• Sulfide scale covering the surface of components.
•Deposits may be thick or thin depending on the alloy
 Sulfidation
• Prevention / Mitigation

• Upgrading to a higher chromium alloy.

• Solid or clad 300 or 400 Series SS can provide resistance

• Aluminum diffusion treatment of low alloy steel to reduce

sulfidation rates and minimize scale formation, however, it may
not offer complete protection.
• above 1193 °F (645 °C), sulfidation rates of higher-nickel alloys
can be reduced by selecting alloy with a lower Ni content.
 Sulfidation
• Inspection and Monitoring

• Using tube skin TC and/or infrared thermography.

• Thinning can be detected using external UT thickness and

profile RT.

• Proactive and retroactive MVPs programs to be used for

alloy verification and to check for alloy mix-ups in services
where sulfidation is anticipated
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• Description of Damage
• a) Hydrogen Blistering : results from hydrogen atoms that
form during sulfide corrosion on steel surface, that diffuse in
steel, and collect at a discontinuity in the steel such as an
inclusion or lamination.
• b) Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC): when the hydrogen
atoms diffuse into the steel the pressure buildup resulting from
hydrogen atoms combining to form H2 gas that cause the
internal separations within the wall of the vessel. The
separations are initially microscopic in size but can connect
together to form macroscopic-sized cracksc) Stress Oriented
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• Description of Damage
• Stress Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking (SOHIC):
• Similar to HIC but is a potentially more damaging form of
cracking because it is driven by high levels of stress (residual
or applied).
• d) Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC): cracking under combined
action of tensile stress and corrosion in presence of water and
H2S.
• SSC is a form of hydrogen stress cracking resulting from
absorption of atomic hydrogen that is produced by sulfide
corrosion on the surface.
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)

• Affected Materials

• Carbon steel, and in the case of SSC, low-alloy steels, and

martensitic stainless steels.
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• Critical Factors 1) Ph

• Minimal at pH 7 and increase at both higher and lower pH.

• (HCN) in water phase increases H2 permeation in alkaline
(high pH) sour water.
• Conditions which promote corrosion:
• Free water with pH <4 and some dissolved H2S present
• Free water with pH >7.6 and 20 ppm dissolved (HCN) in the
water and some dissolved H2S present
 Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)

• 2) H2S
• At 50 ppm H2S wet H2S damage becomes a problem.
• The presence of as little as1 ppm of H2S in the water
sufficient to cause hydrogen charging of the steel.
• H2S partial pressures above 0.05 psi (0.0003 Mpa) with a
tensile strength above 90 ksi or in with zones of weld or weld
HAZ hardness above 237 HB.
 Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• 3) Temperature

• Blistering, HIC, and SOHIC Between ambient and

300F (150C) or higher.
• SSC is greatest at about 70 °F (20 °C) and decreases
with increasing or decreasing temperature.
• If susceptible metals become charged with hydrogen
during high-temperature exposure [e.g. above 200 °F
(95 °C)], they can subsequently crack when cooled
back down to ambient.
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• 4) Hardness

• Carbon steels used in refinery applications should produce

weld hardness <200 HB as per NACE RP0472.
• These steels are not susceptible to SSC unless localized
zones of hardness above 237 HB are present.
• High-strength steels (generally those with hardness greater
than 22 HRC) or steels that can be hardened
• by welding, such as Cr-Mo steels, can be susceptible to
SSC,
• Blistering, HIC and SOHIC damage are not related to steel
hardness.
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• 5) Microstructure.
• Blistering and HIC strongly affected by inclusions and
laminations (“dirty” steels)
• Flat, elongated (MnS) inclusions produced by ordinary steel
plate rolling practices .
• HIC resistant steels outlined in NACE MR0103.
• Improving steel cleanliness to minimize blistering and HIC
still leave steel susceptible to SOHIC.
• Absence of blistering may leave a false sense of security
that H2S damage is not active yet but subsurface SOHIC
may be present.
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• 6) Tensile stress level.
• PWHT will not prevent Blistering and HIC.
• High local stresses or notch-like discontinuities such as
shallow sulfide stress cracks can serve as initiation sites for
SOHIC.
• PWHT will relieve the weld residual stresses even if it does
not reduce the hardness of the hard spots, and relief of the
residual stresses will help minimize the likelihood of SSC.
• PWHT somewhat effective in reducing SOHIC damage.
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• Affected Units or Equipment
• In HPU, increasing concentration of ammonium bisulfide
above 2% increases the potential for blistering, HIC and
SOHIC.

• Cyanides significantly increase the probability and severity of

blistering, HIC and SOHIC damage.

• SSC is most likely found in hard weld ,HAZ and high strength
components including bolts, relief valve springs, 400 Series
SS valve trim, compressor shafts
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• Appearance of Damage
• Blisters appear as bulges on ID or OD surface of the
steel in the shell plate or head of a pressure vessel.
• Blistering has been found on rare occasions in pipe
and very rarely in the middle of a weld.
• Late-stage HIC or SOHIC will create surface-
breaking cracks.
• SOHIC and SSC most often associated with
weldments.
• Blisters and HIC typically are not associated with
welds
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• Prevention / Mitigation
• PWHT can help minimize susceptibility to SOHIC.
• Barriers such as cladding and coatings.
• Change pH the water phase and/or ammonia or cyanide
concentration can help to reduce damage.
• Utilize wash water injection to dilute the HCN concentration
• Cyanides can be converted to harmless thiocyanates by
injecting dilute streams of ammonium polysulfides.
• SSC can generally be prevented by limiting the hardness of
welds and HAZ to 200 HB maximum through preheat, PWHT,
weld procedures and control of carbon equivalents.
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)
• Inspection and Monitoring
• Cracks from SOHIC or surface-breaking HIC may be seen
visually.
• Crack detection at early stage WFMT, EC, RT or ACFM
techniques.
• ACFM or ECT. PT cannot find tight cracks and is not reliable
for finding SOHIC or HIC.
• AET can be used for monitoring crack growth.
• If cracking in SSC is not visually apparent, the cracks can
normally be found using MT if they are surface breaking
and there is access to the surface, or angle beam UT
(SWUT or PAUT) if they are subsurface or on inaccessible
 • END

• THANK YOU FOR ATTENTION