Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur

________________________________________________________________
Electronics Engineering Lab-22ECP101
(22ECP101, B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

List of Experiments
1. Study of various Electronic instruments such as Multimeter, DSO,
Function Generator and Power Supply.
2. To observe sine, square and triangular waveforms on the DSO and to
measure amplitude and frequency of the waveforms.
3. Familiarization of Electronics Components such as: Resistor, Capacitor,
Diode, Transistor, LED, Photodiode, Phototransistor, IC and also test
them with the help of Multimeter.
4. To obtain V-I characteristics of PN junction diode.
5. To obtain V-I characteristics of Zener diode.
6. To observe waveform at the output of half wave rectifier with and
without capacitor filter and also measure its DC voltage, DC current and
ripple factor.
7. To observe waveform at the output of centre tapped full wave rectifier
with and without capacitor filter and also measure its DC voltage, DC
current and ripple factor.
8. To observe waveform at the output of full wave bridge rectifier with and
without capacitor filter and also measure its DC voltage, DC current and
ripple factor.
9. To observe waveforms at the output of various clipper circuits.
10. To observe waveforms at the output of various positive and negative
clamper circuits with and without bias.
Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Experiment No. 1

Objective:
Study of various Electronic instruments such as Multimeter, DSO, Function Generator,
Power Supply and Breadboard..

Components and Equipments Required:

Digital Storage Oscilloscope, DC Power Supply, Digital Multimeter, Probes and Breadboard.

Theory:
DSO:
A digital storage oscilloscope (often abbreviated DSO) is an oscilloscope which stores and
analyses the signal digitally, rather than using analog techniques. It is now the most common
type of oscilloscope in use because of the advanced trigger, storage, display and measurement
features which it typically provides.
The input analogue signal is sampled and then converted into a digital record of the
amplitude of the signal at each sample time. The sampling frequency should be not less than
the Nyquist rate to avoid aliasing. These digital values are then turned back into an analogue
signal for display on a cathode ray tube (CRT), or transformed as needed for the various
possible types of output—liquid crystal display, chart recorder, plotter or network interface.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

1. To access the Waveform Generator Menu and enable or disable the waveform generator
output on the front panel Gen Out BNC, press the [Wave Gen] key. When waveform
generator output is enabled, the [Wave Gen] key is illuminated. When waveform generator
output is disabled, the [WaveGen] key is off. The waveform generator output is always

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

disabled when the instrument is first turned on. The waveform generator output is
automatically disabled if excessive voltage is applied to the Gen Out BNC.
2. In the Waveform Generator Menu, press the Waveform softkey and turn the Entry knob to
select the waveform type.
3. Depending on the selected waveform type, use the remaining softkeys and the Entry knob
to set the waveform’s characteristics.

Pressing a signal parameter softkey can open a menu for selecting the type of adjustment. For
example, you can choose to enter amplitude and offset values, or you can choose to enter
high- level and low- level values. Or, you can choose to enter frequency values or period
values. Keep pressing the softkey to select the type of adjustment. Turn the Entry knob to
adjust the value.
The frequency can be adjusted upto 20 MHz.

Sine Waveform from Function Generator

Digital Multimeter:

Key features of Digital Multimeter :

 DC, AC voltage and current measurements.

 True-RMS measurement for both AC voltage and current.
 Ambient temperature on second display.
 Battery capacity indicator.
 Bright orange LED backlight.
 Resistance measurement of up to 50 MΩ .
 Conductance measurement from 0.01 nS (100 GΩ) ∼ 50 nS.
 Capacitance measurement of up to 100 mF.

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

 The % scale readout for 4–20 mA or 0–20 mA measurement.

 dBm with selectable reference impedance.
 1 ms Peak Hold to catch inrush voltage and current easily.
 Temperature test with selectable 0 °C compensation (without ambient temperature
compensation) .
 Frequency, duty cycle, and pulse width measurements.
 Dynamic Recording for min, max, and average readings.
 Data Hold with manual or auto trigger and Null mode.
 Diode and audible continuity tests.
 Closed case calibration.

Primary display symbols:

LED Indication:
AUTO Auto range
AC + DC
DC
AC

Polarity, digits, & decimal points for

primary display
dBm Decibel unit relative to 1
mW
dBV Decibel unit relative to 1 V
MkHz Frequency units: Hz, kHz,
MHz
MkW Resistance units: Ω, kΩ,
MΩ
nS Conductance unit
mV Voltage units: mV, V
μmA Current units: μA, mA, A
% Duty cycle measurement
ms Pulse width unit

μmnF Capacitance units: nF, μF,

mF
ºC Celsius temperature unit

Digital Multimeter

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

DC Power Supply:

Key features of power supply:

 Low ripple and noise < 1 mVrms

 Stable output, load regulation < 0.01%
 Readback Accuracy better than 0.35%
 Easy-to-use
use rotary knob and self
self-guiding
guiding keypads enable you to set the output to your
desired resolution
 Overvoltage, overcurrent protection to prevent damage to your device under test
 Store and recall three memory states to reduce set up time
 Simple front panel control and security features such as a keypad lock
 Voltage: 0-30 Volt
 Current: 0-3 A
 Single output DC supply

DC Power Supply

Breadboard:-
A breadboard is used for building temporary circuits.
circuits

It is useful to designers because it allows components to be removed and replaced easily. It is

useful to the person who wants to build a circuit to demonstrate its action, then to reuse the
components in another circuit.
A Breadboard is simply a board for pr prototyping
ototyping or building circuits on. It allows you to place
components and connections on the board to make circuits without soldering. The holes in
the breadboard take care of your connections by physically holding onto parts or wires where
you put them and electrically connecting them inside the board. The ease of use and speed are
great for learning and quick prototyping of simple circuits. More complex circuits and high
frequency circuits are less suited to breadboarding. Breadboard circuits are also not ideal for

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

long term use like circuits built on perfboard (protoboard) or PCB (printed circuit board), but
they also don’t have the soldering (protoboard), or design and manufacturing costs (PCBs).

Breadboard

Result:
Thus, We have studied different Electronics measuring instruments such as DSO, Digital
Multimeter, Digital Power Supply and Breadboard.

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Experiment No. 2

Objective:
To observe sine wave, square wave and triangular wave waveforms on the D.S.O. and to
measure amplitude and frequency of the waveforms.

Components and Equipments Required:

DSO, Function Generator, Probes etc.

Theory:
Traditionally, C,R.O. is used to display waveform for the output of any Electronic Circuits.
C.R.O. (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) is the instrument which is used to observe signal
waveforms. Signals are displayed in time domain i.e. variation in amplitude of the signal with
respect to time is plotted on the CRO screen. X-axis represents Time and Y-axis represents
Amplitude. It is used to measure amplitude, frequency and phase of the waveforms. It is also
used to observe shape of the waveform. C.R.O. is useful for troubleshooting purpose. It helps
us to find out gain of amplifier, test oscillator circuits. We can measure amplitude and
frequency of the waveforms at the different test points in our circuit. Thus, it helps us for
fault finding procedure. In dual channel C.R.O., X-Y mode is available which is used to
create Lissajous patterns.

In Latest Technology, DSO( Digital Storage Oscilloscope) is advance version of CRO.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) display voltage and frequency directly on the LCD and
does not require any calculations. It can also store waveform for further analysis. In this
practical, we will measure amplitude and frequency of the different waveforms like sine
wave, square wave, triangular wave and ramp wave using DSO.

Procedure:

1. Connect function generator output at the input of D.S.O. at channel 1 or at channel 2

2. Select proper channel i.e. if signal is connected to channel 1 select CH1 and if signal is
connected to channel 2 select CH2

3. Adjust Time /Div knob to get sufficient time period displacement of the wave on the DSO
screen.

4. With fine tuning of Time/Div make the waveform steady on screen.

5. Use triggering controls if waveform is not stable

6. Keep Volt/Div knob such that waveform is visible on the screen without clipping

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

7. Measure P-P (peak to peak) reading along y-axis. This reading multiplied with volt/div
gives peak to peak amplitude of the ac input wave.

8. Measure horizontal division of one complete cycle. This division multiplied by time/div
gives time period of the i/p wave.

9. Calculate frequency using formula f = 1/T.

10. Note down your readings in the observation table

11. Draw waveforms of sine, square, ramp and triangular in the given space.

12. Take observations a.) 1 Volt, 1 KHz b.) 2 Volt, 5 KHz

Observations:

Function Vertica Volt/di Amplitude(P Horizonta Time/div Time Freq.

l v -P) V=a*b l Division T=c*d f=1/T
Divisio (c) (d)
n (a) (b)

Sine Wave

Triangula
r Wave

Square
Wave

Results

Thus, we have observed sine wave, square wave and triangular wave waveforms on the
D.S.O. and measure amplitude and frequency of the waveforms.

Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. How DSO works?

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

2. What are the main elements of DSO?

3. What is the use of DSO?

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Experiment No.3

Objective:
Familiarization of Electronics Components such as Resistor, Capacitor, Diode, Transistor,
LED, Photodiode, Phototransistor and IC also test them with the help of Multimeter.
Multimeter

Appratus Required:
Resistor, Capacitor, Diode,
e, Transistor, LED, Photodiode, Phototransistor, IC and Multimeter.
Multimeter

Theory:

RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal
terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance
as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across
the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes,, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units oof volts,, and R is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms.. The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of
current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant
(independent of the voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings.

The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
Ohm
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere.. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1
KΩ = 103 Ω), and mega ohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage. The reciprocal of
resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in siemens (SI unit), sometimes
referred to as a mho.. Hence, siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: .

Resistor Colour Coding

Figure 3.2 Colour Coding of Resistor

To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

 band A is first significant figure of component value (left side)

 band B is the second significant figure (Some precision resistors have a third
significant figure, and thus five bands.)
 band C is the decimal multiplier
 band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)

For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4
(yellow in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold
signifies that the tolerance is ±5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465
and 4,935 ohms. Resistor Colour Code is given in Table 3.1

Table 3.1 Resistor Colour Code

CAPACITOR

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component

used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative
charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of
the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Figure
Figure: - 3.3 Electrolytic Capacitor

The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An
ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of
charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them

DIODE:

The p-n junction is a uni-junction

junction between a p-type
p and an n-type
type semiconductor. It acts as a
diode, which can serve in electronics as a rectifier, logic gate, voltage regulator (Zener
diode), switching or tuner
er (varactor
(vara diode) and in optoelectronics as a light-emitting
emitting diode
(LED), laser diode, photo detector, or solar cell.

The diode is comprised of a P-type P material combined with an N-typetype material. In

electronics, a diode is a two-terminal
terminal electronic component with an asymmetric transfer
characteristic,, with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite)) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode,, the most common type
today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p-n junction connected to two
electrical terminals.
s. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to
pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the
opposite direction (the reverse direction).

Figure 3.7 Symbol of Diode

TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are
found embedded in integrated circuits.

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT or bipolar transistor) is a type of transistor that relies on the
contact of two types of semiconductor for its operation. BJTs can be used as amplifiers,
switches, or in oscillators.. BJTs can be found either as individual discrete components, or in

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

large numbers as parts of integrated circuits.

circuits Bipolar transistors are so named because their
operation involves both electrons and holes.. These two kinds of charge carriers are
characteristic of the two kinds of doped semiconductor material. In contrast, unipolar
transistors such as the field-effect
effect transistors have only one kind of charge carrier.

Figure 3.8.

Figure 33.8 Symbol of PNP & NPN transistor

As shown in Figure, the BJT consists of three semiconductor regions: the emitter region (N (
type), the base region (p type), and the collector region (n type). Such a transistor is called an
NPN transistor. Transistors can be regarded as a type of switch, as can many electronic
components.

Figure 3.9
3 Structure of NPN Transistor

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

A light-emitting
emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.. Appearing as practical
electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity
low ensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths,, with very high
brightness.

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Figure 3.10 Symbol of LED and 5mm Led

Photo-Diode

A photodiode is a type of photo

photo-detector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage,, depending upon the mode of operation The common, traditional solar cell used to
generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.

Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays)) or packaged with a window or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for
use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction,, to increase the
speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.

Symbol

Figure 3.11
3 Symbol of Photo Diode

Principle of Operation

A photodiode is a p-n junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes
the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron (and a positively
positivel charged
electron hole). This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. effect If the
absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region,, or one diffusion length away from it,
these carriers are swept from the junction by the built
built-in
in field of the depletion region. Thus
holes move toward the anode,, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is
produced. This photocurrent is the sum of both the dark current (without light) and the light
current, so the dark current must be minimized to enhance the sensitivity of the device.

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Photovoltaic mode

When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device is
restricted and a voltage builds up. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the
basis for solar cells – a traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode.

Photoconductive mode

In this mode the diode is often reverse biased (with the cathode positive), dramatically
reducing the response time at the expense of increased noise. This increases the width of the
depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times.
The reverse bias induces only a small amount of current (known as saturation or back
current) along its direction while the photocurrent remains virtually the same. For a given
spectral distribution, the photocurrent is linearly proportional to the illuminance (and to the
irradiance).

Applications

P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors, such as
photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. Photodiodes are used in
consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, and the
receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control equipment from televisions to air
conditioners. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for
computed tomography (coupled with scintillators), instruments to analyze samples
(immunoassay), and pulse oximeters.

Phototransistor

A transistor that uses light rather than electricity to cause an electrical current to flow from
one side to the other. It is used in a variety of sensors that detect the presence of light.
Phototransistors combine a photodiode and transistor together to generate more output
current than a photodiode by itself.

Phototransistor structure

Although ordinary transistors exhibit the photosensitive effects if they are exposed to light,
the structure of the phototransistor is specifically optimised for photo applications. The photo
transistor has much larger base and collector areas than would be used for a normal transistor.
These devices were generally made using diffusion or ion implantation.

Figure 3.13 Homo junction planar phototransistor structure

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Early photo transistors used germanium or silicon throughout the device giving a homo-
junction structure. The more modern phototransistors use type III-V materials such as gallium
arsenide and the like. Hetero structures that use different materials either side of the p-n
junction are also popular because they provide high conversion efficiency. These are
generally fabricated using epitaxial growth of materials that have matching lattice structures.
Sometimes a Schottky (metal semiconductor) junction can be used for the collector within a
phototransistor, although this practice is less common these days because other structures
offer better levels of performance.

Phototransistor symbol

The phototransistor symbol for use in electronic circuit diagrams is very straightforward. It is
formed from the basic transistor symbol with arrows point in to it to indicate that it is light
sensitive.The phototransistor symbol often has two arrows pointing towards it, but other
phototransistor symbols show a jagged arrow. Both versions of the phototransistor symbol
are acceptable and understood.

Figure 3.14 Phototransistor symbol

IC (Integrated Circuits)

An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as IC, chip, or

microchip) is an electronic circuit on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material,
normally silicon. Such a circuit can be made very compact, having up to several billion
transistors and other electronic components. The width of each conductor (the line width) can
be made smaller and smaller as the technology advances, and can now (in 2012) be expressed
as a two-digit number of nanometers.

Integrated Circuits play a very important part in electronics. Most are specially made for a
specific task and contain up to thousands of transistors, diodes and resistors. Special purposes
IC's such as audio-amplifiers, FM radios, logic blocks, regulators and even whole micro
computers in the form of a micro controller can be fitted inside a tiny package. Some of the
simple Integrated Circuits are shown in Figure3.15.

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Figure 3.15 Simple Integrated Circuits

Depending on the way they are manufactured, integrated circuits can be divided into two
groups: hybrid and monolithic.

SSI, MSI and LSI

The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "small-scale integration"
(SSI), digital circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens provided a few logic gates
for example, while early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the Philips TAA320 had as
few as two transistors.

The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced
devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "medium-scale
integration" (MSI).They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to
produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller
circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of
other advantages.

Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density. Manufacturers moved
to smaller design rules and cleaner fabrication facilities, so that they could make chips with
more transistors and maintain adequate yield. The path of process improvements was
summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). Design
tools improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time. The
more energy efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in
power consumption.

Result: We have succeccfully studied the basic symbol, operation and applications of
Diode, transistor, capacitor, resistance, LED,Photodiode, Phototransistor and IC.

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Experiment No.4
Objective: - To obtain V-I characteristics of PN junction diode.
diode

Apparatus required:- Diode 1N4007, Resistor 1K, D.C. power supply, two multimeter,
breadboard, wires etc.

Theory:
The semiconductor diode is formed by doping P P-type
type impurity in one side and N-type
N of
impurity in another side of the semiconductor crystal forming a pp-nn junction as shown in the
following Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 PN Junction

At the junction initially free charge carriers from both side recombine forming negatively
charged ions in P side of junction(an atom in P P-side
side accept electron and becomes negatively
charged ion) and positively charged ion on n side(an atom in n-side
n side accepts hole i.e. donates
electron
ron and becomes positively charged ion)region. This region deplete of any type of free
charge carrier is called as depletion region. Further recombination of free carrier on both
sides is prevented because of the depletion voltage generated due to charge ccarriers
arriers kept at
distance by depletion (acts as a sort of insulation) layer as shown dotted in the above figure
4.1.

Figure 4.2 V-I Characteristics of Diode

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

A semiconductor diode’s behaviour in a circuit is given by its current–voltage characteristic,

or V–I graph (Figure 4.2). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge
carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p–n
junction between differing semiconductors.

Working principle:
When voltage is not applied across the diode, depletion region forms as shown in the above
figure. When the voltage is applied between the two terminals of the diode (anode and
cathode) two possibilities arises depending on polarity of DC supply.

Forward-Bias: When the +Ve terminal of the battery is connected to P-type material & -Ve
terminal to N-type terminal as shown in the circuit diagram, the diode is said to be forward
biased. The application of forward bias voltage will force electrons in N-type and holes in P-
type material to recombine with the ions near boundary and to flow crossing junction. This
reduces width of depletion region. This further will result in increase in majority carriers flow
across the junction. If forward bias is further increased in magnitude the depletion region
width will continue to decrease, resulting in exponential rise in current.

Reverse-biased: If the negative terminal of battery (DC power supply) is connected with P-
type terminal of diode and +Ve terminal of battery connected to N type then diode is said to
be reverse biased. In this condition the free charge carriers (i.e. electrons in N-type and holes
in P-type) will move away from junction widening depletion region width. The minority
carriers (i.e. –ve electrons in p-type and +ve holes in n-type) can cross the depletion region
resulting in minority carrier current flow called as reverse saturation current (Is). As no of
minority carrier is very small so the magnitude of I is few microamperes. Ideally current in
reverse bias is zero.

In short, current flows through diode in forward bias and do not flow through diode in reverse
bias. Diode can pass current only in one direction.

Practical Circuit Diagram

Forward Bias:

Figure 4.3 Diode in Forward Bias

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Reverse Bias

Figure 4.4 Diode in Reverse Bias

Experiment Procedure:
1. Connect the power supply, voltmeter, current meter with the diode as shown in the figure
for forward bias diode. You can use two multimeter (one to measure current through diode
and other to measure voltage across diode)

2. Increase voltage from the power supply from 0V to 20V in step.

3. Measure voltage across diode and current through diode. Note down readings in the
observation table.

4. Reverse DC power supply polarity for reverse bias.

5. Repeat the above procedure for the different values of supply voltage for reverse bias

6. Draw VI characteristics for forward bias and reverse bias in one graph.

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Observation Table :
Forward Bias

Sr. No. Voltage across Diode Diode Current

(mA)

1 0.1 V

2 0.2 V

3 0.3 V

4 0.4 V

5 0.5 V

6 0.6 V

7 0.7 V

Reverse Bias

Sr. No. Voltage across Diode Diode Current

(µA)

1 0V

2 4V

3 8V

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

4 12 V

5 16 V

6 20 V

7 24 V

Plot: Simple Semi Graph is plot from table.

Result: Thus, we have plotted V-I characteristics of PN Junction Diode.

Viva Voice Questions:

1. What do you mean by knee voltage?

2. What do you mean by breakdown voltage?

3. List out the applications of diode.

4. How to check the diode using multimeter?

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Experiment No.5
Objective: To obtain V-I characteristics of ZENER diode.
Apparatus Required: Zener Diode, Resistor 1K, D.C. power supply, two multimeter,
breadboard, wires etc.

Theory:
The Zener diode is designed to operate in reverse breakdown region. Zener diode is used for
voltage regulation purpose. Zener diodes are designed for specific reverse breakdown voltage
called Zener breakdown voltage (VZ). The value of VZ depends on amount of doping.
Breakdown current is limited by power dissipation capacity of the zener diode. If power
capacity of the Zener is 1 W and Zener voltage is 10V, highest reverse current is 0.1A or
100mA. If current increases more than this limit, diode will be damaged. A forward
characteristic of the Zener diode is similar to normal PN junction diode.

Practical Circuit Diagram:

Forward Bias

Reverse Bias

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Procedure:
1. Connect the power supply, voltmeter, current meter with the diode as shown in the figure
for reverse bias. You can use two multimeter (one to measure current through diode and other
to measure voltage across diode)

2. Increase voltage from the power supply from 0V to 20V in step.

3. Measure voltage across diode and current through diode. Note down readings in the
observation table.

4. Reverse DC power supply polarity for forward bias.

5. Repeat the above procedure for the different values of supply voltage for reverse bias.

6. Draw VI characteristics for reverse bias and forward bias in one graph.

Observation Table
Forward Bias

S.No. Voltage across Diode Diode Current

(in mA)

1 0V

2 0.1 V

3 0.2 V

4 0.3 V

5 0.4 V

6 0.5 V

7 0.6 V

8 0.7 V

9 0.8 V

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Reverse Bias

S.No. Voltage across Diode Diode Current

(in mA)

1 0V

2 1V

3 2V

4 3V

5 4V

6 5V

7 5.10V

8 5.11V

9 5.12V

Plot: Simple Semi Graph is plot from table.

Result: Thus, we have plotted V-I characteristics of Zener Diode.

Viva Voice Questions:

1. What is the main application of Zener Diode?

2. What do you mean by Zener Breakdown?

3. List out important Characteristics of Zener diode.

4. What is the difference between Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown?

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Experiment No.6
Objective: To observe waveform at the output of half wave rectifier with and without
capacitor filter and also measure its DC voltage, DC current and ripple factor with and
without capacitor filter.

Apparatus required: Transformer Input: 230V AC, output: 12V AC, 500 mA, DSO, Probes,
Diode 1N4007, Resistor 10K, Capacitor 10uF, 1000μF, Breadboard and connecting wires etc.

Theory:
One of the very important applications of diode is in DC power supply as a rectifier to
convert AC into DC. DC Power supply is the important element of any electronic equipment.
This is because it provides power to energize all electronic circuits like oscillators, amplifiers
and so on. In electronic equipments, D.C. power supply is must. For example, we can’t think
of television, computer, radio, telephone, mobile as well as measuring instruments like CRO,
multi-meter etc. without DC power supply. The reliability and performance of the electronic
system proper design of power supply is necessary. The first block of DC power supply is
rectifier. Rectifier may be defined as an electronic device used to convert ac voltage or
current into unidirectional voltage or current. Essentially rectifier needs unidirectional device.
Diode has unidirectional property hence suitable for rectifier. Rectifier broadly divided into
two categories: Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier. In this experiment, you will
construct half wave rectifier.

Working principle of Half Wave Rectifier:

In half wave rectifier only half cycle of applied AC voltage is used. Another half cycle of AC
voltage (negative cycle) is not used. Only one diode is used which conducts during positive
cycle. The circuit diagram of half wave rectifier without capacitor is shown in the following
figure. During positive half cycle of the input voltage anode of the diode is positive compared
with the cathode. Diode is in forward bias and current passes through the diode and positive
cycle develops across the load resistance RL. During negative half cycle of input voltage,
anode is negative with respected to cathode and diode is in reverse bias. No current passes
through the diode, hence output voltage is zero.

Figure 6.1. Half Wave Rectifier

Half wave rectifier without filter capacitor convert AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage.
Filter capacitor is used to obtain smooth DC voltage. Construct following circuit to perform
this practical.

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Practical Circuit diagram:

Figure 6.2. Practical Circuit Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier without capacitor filter

Figure 6.3 Practical Circuit Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier with capacitor filter

Procedure:
1. Trace the circuit on breadboard. Note the value of load resistor and type of number
of diode.
2. Connect the mains voltage to the primary side transformer. Connect the output
terminals to the vertical plates (Channel 1) of CRO. Adjust different knobs of CRO
and obtain a stationary pattern on its screen. Now touch the CRO probes at the
output side of rectifier. Observe the wave-shape on CRO. Plot both the wave-
shapes in your record book. Compare the two voltage wave-shapes.

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

3. Measure ac voltage at the input and output points. Also measure the dc voltage
across the load resistor. Measure Vm, which is equal to Vp-p /2 of input waveform.
4. In case of DSO, Vac and Vdc are directly measured with the help of meas button
on DSO. For Vac use AC RMS Full Screen and Vdc use Average Full Screen in
pop up menu of meas button.
5. From the measured ac voltage, dc voltage, calculate dc current. Now calculate
ripple factor by dividing ac voltage (at the output) by dc voltage at the output.
6. Connect capacitor across resisitor and also calculate the value of ripple factor with
capacitor.

Ripple factor with capacitor = 1 / 2√3fRC

Waveforms:

1. Without filter capacitor:

Input waveform:

Output waveform:

2. With filter capacitor:

Output waveform:

Observations: Button of Vac on DSO(AC RMS Full Screen)

Button of Vdc on DSO(Average Full Screen)

[1] Without filter capacitor

 DC output voltage Vd.c. = ___________

 DC output current: Id.c. = Vd.c / RL =______________ , Here RL=10KΩ

 AC output voltage (Ripple voltage): Va.c.=__________

 Ripple factor = (Va.c / Vd.c) = ______________

 Vp-p of Input waveform = _______________________

 Vm= Vp-p/2 for theoretical calculation.

[2] With filter capacitor

 DC output voltage Vd.c = ___________

 DC output current: Id.c. = Vd.c / RL =______________

 AC output voltage (Ripple voltage) Va.c.=__________

 Ripple factor = (Va.c / Vd.c) = ______________

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Result: Thus, We have observed waveform at the output of Half wave rectifier with or
without capacitor filter and measure its Ripple Factor.

Viva Voice Questions:

[1] Define ripple factor.
[2] What is the effect of value of filter capacitor on ripple voltage?
[3] What is the mathematical relationship between rms input AC voltage and DC
output voltage in half wave rectifier without filter capacitor?
[4] What do you mean by Filter?

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Experiment No.7
Objective: To observe waveform at the output of Center tapped Full wave rectifier with
and without capacitor filter and to
to measure DC voltage, DC current, ripple factor
with and without capacitor filter.

Apparatus required: Transformer Input: 230V AC, output: 12V AC, 500 mA, DSO, Two
Diodes 1N4007, Resistor 10K, Capacitor 10uF, 1000μF,, probes and connecting wires etc..
etc.

Theory:
Full wave rectifier utilizes both the cycle of input AC voltage. Two or four diodes are used in
full wave rectifier. If full wave rectifier is designed using four diodes it is known as full wave
bridge rectifier. Full wave rectifier using two diodes without capacitor is shown in the
following figure.. Centre tapped transformer is used in this full wave rectifier. During the
positive cycle diode D1 conducts and it is available at the output. During negative cycle diode
D1 remains OFF but diode D2 is in forward bias hence it conducts and negative cycle is
available as a positive cycle at the output as shown in the following figure. Note that
direction of current in the load resistance is same during both the cycles hence output is only
positive.

Fig. 7.1 Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier without Cap

Capacitor
acitor filter

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

The Smoothing Capacitor

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an output
wave every half cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to produce a
steady DC supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value
(0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the output waveform is twice that of the
frequency of the input supply frequency. We can therefore increase its average DC output
level even higher by connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor across the output of the bridge
circuit as shown below.

Procedure:

1. Trace the circuit. Note the value of load resistor and type of number of two diodes.
2. Connect the mains voltage to the primary of centre-tapped transformer. Connect the
output terminals to the vertical plates of CRO. Adjust different knobs of CRO and
obtain a stationary pattern on its screen.
Now touch the CRO probes at the load resistor in the circuit. Observe the wave-shape
on CRO. Plot both the wave-shapes in your record book. Compare the two voltage
wave-shapes.
3. Measure ac voltage at the input and output points. Also measure the dc voltage across
the load resistor.
4. In case of DSO, Vac and Vdc are directly measured with the help of meas button on
DSO. For Vac use AC RMS Full Screen and Vdc use Average Full Screen in pop
up menu of meas button.
5. From the measured ac voltage, dc voltage, calculate dc current. Now calculate ripple
factor by dividing ac voltage (at the output) by dc voltage at the output.
6. Connect capacitor across resisitor and also calculate the value of ripple factor with
capacitor.

Waveforms:

1. Without filter capacitor:

Input waveform:

Output waveform:

2. With filter capacitor:

Output waveform:

Observations:

[1] Without filter capacitor

 DC output voltage Vd.c. = ___________

 DC output current: Id.c. = Vd.c / RL =______________ , Here RL=10KΩ

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

 AC output voltage (Ripple voltage) Va.c.=__________

 Ripple factor = (Va.c / Vd.c) = ______________

 Vm= Vp-p/2 for theoretical calculation. Note Vp-p of input waveform.

[2] With filter capacitor

 DC output voltage Vd.c = ___________

 DC current: Id.c. = Vd.c / RL =______________

 AC output voltage (Ripple voltage) Va.c.=__________

 Ripple factor = (Va.c / Vd.c) = ______________

Result: Thus, we have observed waveform at the output of Center tapped Full wave rectifier
with and without capacitor filter and measure its ripple factor.

Viva Voice Questions:

1. What is the frequency of AC component at the output of full wave rectifier?
2. What is the difference in DC output voltage in half wave and full wave rectifier for
the same AC input?
3. What is the mathematical relationship between rms input AC voltage and DC output
voltage in fullf wave rectifier?
4. What is the efficiency of full wave bridge rectifier?

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Experiment No. 8
Objective: To observe waveform at the output of Full wave Bridge rectifier with and
without capacitor filter. To measure DC voltage, DC current, ripple factor with
and without capacitor filter.

Apparatus required: Transformer Input: 230V AC, output: 12V AC, 500 mA, DSO, four
Diodes 1N4007, Resistor 10K, Capacitor 10µF, 1000μF, Connecting wires and probes etc.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed
loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this bridge
circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size
and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network
and the load to the other side as shown below.

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply,
diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the
current flows through the load as shown below:

The Positive Half-cycle

Figure 7.3 Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load
is the same direction as before:

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

The Negative Half-cycle

Figure 7.4 Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the
load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full
full-wave
wave rectifier,
rectif therefore
the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax.

However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of
just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less
than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g.
100Hz for a 50Hz supply)

Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge rectifier, pre pre-
made bridge rectifier components are available “off
“off-the-shelf”
shelf” in a range of different voltage
and current sizes that can be soldered directly into a PCB circuit board or be connected by
spade connectors.

The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one corner cut off.
This cut-off
off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the corner is the positive
or +ve output terminal or lead with the opposite (diagonal) lead being the negative or -
ve output lead. The other two connecting leads are for the input alternating voltage from a
transformer secondary winding.

The Smoothing Capacitor

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave

half wave rectifier produces an output
wave every half cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to produce a
steady DC supply. The full-wave
wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value
(0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the output waveform is twice that of the
frequency of the input supply frequency. We can therefore increase its average DC output
level
evel even higher by connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor across the output of the bridge
circuit as shown below.

Bridge Rectifier Ripple Voltage

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Where: I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or twice the input
frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.

The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC ripple value for
a given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an equivalent half-wave
rectifier. Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the ripple voltage is twice that of the AC
supply frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply
frequency (50Hz).

Practical Circuit Diagram:

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier without Capacitor Filter

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Procedure:

1. Trace the circuit. Note the value of load resistor and type of number of four diodes.
2. Connect the mains voltage to the primary of centre-tapped transformer. Connect the
output terminals to the vertical plates (Channel 1) of CRO. Adjust different knobs of
CRO and obtain a stationary pattern on its screen.
3. Now touch the CRO probes at the load resistor in the circuit. Observe the wave-shape on
CRO. Plot both the wave-shapes in your record book. Compare the two voltage wave-
shapes.
4. Measure ac voltage at the input and output points. Also measure the dc voltage across the
load resistor.
5. In case of DSO, Vac and Vdc are directly measured with the help of meas button on DSO
front panel. For Vac use AC RMS Full Screen and Vdc use Average Full Screen in pop
up menu of meas button.
6. From the measured ac voltage, dc voltage, calculate dc current. Now calculate ripple
factor by dividing ac voltage (at the output) by dc voltage at the output.
7. Connect capacitor across resisitor and also calculate the value of ripple factor with
capacitor.

Waveforms:

Without filter capacitor:

Input waveform:

Output waveform:

With filter capacitor:

Output waveform:

Observations:
[1] Without filter capacitor

 DC output voltage Vd.c. = ___________

 DC output current: Id.c. = Vd.c / RL =______________ , Here RL=10KΩ

 AC output voltage (Ripple voltage) Va.c.=__________

 Ripple factor = (Va.c / Vd.c) = ______________

 Vp-p of Input waveform = ________________

 Vm= Vp-p/2 for theoretical calculation.

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

[2] With filter capacitor

 DC output voltage Vd.c = ___________

 DC output current: Id.c. = Vd.c / RL =______________

 AC output voltage (Ripple voltage) Va.c.=__________

 Ripple factor = (Va.c / Vd.c) = ______________

Result: Thus, we have observed waveform at the output of Full wave Bridge rectifier with
and without capacitor filter and measure its ripple factor.

Viva Voice Questions:

1. What is the frequency of AC component at the output of full wave rectifier?

2. What is the difference in DC output voltage in half wave and full wave rectifier for the
same AC input?

3. What is the mathematical relationship between rms input AC voltage and DC output
voltage in full wave rectifier?

4. What is the efficiency of full wave bridge rectifier?

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Experiment No. 9
Objective: To observe waveforms at the output of various clipper circuits.
Apparatus Required: Diode-1N4007, capacitors, resistor, power supply, DSO, Function
Generator, Multimeter, CRO Probes etc.

Theory:
It is frequently necessary to modify the shape of various waveforms for use in
instrumentation, controls, computation, and communications. Wave shaping is often achieved
by relatively simple combinations of diodes, resistors, and voltage sources. Such circuits are
called clippers, limiters, amplitude selectors, or slicers. Clipper circuits are primarily used to
prevent a waveform from exceeding a particular limit, either positive or negative. Clipping
circuit is used to select for transmission that part of an arbitrary waveform which lies above
or below some reference level. Clipping circuit “clips” some portion of the waveform.
Clipping circuit is also referred to as voltage limiters. Clamping circuit preserves shape of the
waveform while clipping circuit does not preserve shape of waveform. Clipping circuit uses
some reference level. Waveform above or below this reference level is clipped. Clipping
circuits are also known as voltage limiter or amplitude limiter or slicers.

1Volt

Figure 8.1 Clipper Circuit

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.

2. A sine wave input Vi whose amplitude is greater than the clipping level is applied.
3. Output waveform Vo is observed on DSO.
4. Clipped voltage is measured and verified with desired one.
5. Make any four clipper circuits and test it.

Waveforms:

 Input Waveform
 Output Waveform

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Save Input and output waveform in one screen

Measure Vpp of output waveform=……..

Result: Thus, we have observed waveform at the output of various clipper circuit.

Viva Voice Questions:

1. What do you mean by clipper?
2. Why clipper circuits are called limiters?

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Experiment No. 10
Aim: To observe waveforms at the output of various positive and negative clamper circuits
with and without bias.

Apparatus required: - Diode IN4007, Capacitors, resistor, power supply, DSO, Function
Generator, multimeter etc.

Theory:
In certain instances, it may be desirable to keep the output waveform essentially unchanged,
but modify its dc level to some required value. This can be done by the use of diodes,
resistors, capacitors, and voltage sources. Such circuits are known as clampers. Diodes are
widely used in clipping and clamping circuits. Clamping circuits are used to change DC level
(average level) of the signal which adds or subtracts DC value with the signal. In clamping,
shape of waveform remains same only offset value (DC level) will change. Positive clamping
adds positive DC level in the signal while negative clamping adds negative DC level in the
signal. Capacitor is widely used in the clamping circuit. Typical clamping waveform for the
square wave signal is shown below. Clamping circuit is used in video amplifier of television
receiver to restore DC level of video signal to preserve overall brightness of the scene.
Clamping circuit is also used in offset control of function generator. Zero offset means no DC
value is added in the AC signal.

Positive Clamper Circuit without Bias

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Positive Clamper Circuit with Bias

Negative Clamper without Bias

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Lab Manual for Electronics Engineering Lab (22ECP101 B.Tech. I Semester & II Semester)

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.

2. A square wave or sine wave input Vi whose amplitude is applied.
3. Output waveform Vo is observed on DSO.
4. Clamped voltage Vd.c. or average value is measured by the DSO and verified with
desire one.
Vd.c = _____________________

Waveforms:

 Input Waveform:
 Output Waveform:

Save input and output waveform in one screen.

Measure VDC of output waveform=…………………..

Result: Thus, we have observed waveforms at the output of positive and negative clamper
circuits with and without bias.

Viva Voice Questions:

1. What do you mean by Clamping Circuits?
2. What is the main role of time constant RC in operation of Clamper circuits?

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