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CONVERSIONS BETWEEN U.S. CUSTOMARY UNITS AND SI UNITS

Times conversion factor

U.S. Customary unit Equals SI unit
Accurate Practical

Acceleration (linear)
foot per second squared ft/s2 0.3048* 0.305 meter per second squared m/s2
inch per second squared in./s2 0.0254* 0.0254 meter per second squared m/s2
Area
circular mil cmil 0.0005067 0.0005 square millimeter mm2
square foot ft2 0.09290304* 0.0929 square meter m2
square inch in.2 645.16* 645 square millimeter mm2
Density (mass)
slug per cubic foot slug/ft3 515.379 515 kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Density (weight)
pound per cubic foot lb/ft3 157.087 157 newton per cubic meter N/m3
pound per cubic inch lb/in.3 271.447 271 kilonewton per cubic
meter kN/m3
Energy; work
foot-pound ft-lb 1.35582 1.36 joule (Nm) J
inch-pound in.-lb 0.112985 0.113 joule J
kilowatt-hour kWh 3.6* 3.6 megajoule MJ
British thermal unit Btu 1055.06 1055 joule J
Force
pound lb 4.44822 4.45 newton (kgm/s2) N
kip (1000 pounds) k 4.44822 4.45 kilonewton kN
Force per unit length
pound per foot lb/ft 14.5939 14.6 newton per meter N/m
pound per inch lb/in. 175.127 175 newton per meter N/m
kip per foot k/ft 14.5939 14.6 kilonewton per meter kN/m
kip per inch k/in. 175.127 175 kilonewton per meter kN/m
Length
foot ft 0.3048* 0.305 meter m
inch in. 25.4* 25.4 millimeter mm
mile mi 1.609344* 1.61 kilometer km
Mass
slug lb-s2/ft 14.5939 14.6 kilogram kg
Moment of a force; torque
pound-foot lb-ft 1.35582 1.36 newton meter N·m
pound-inch lb-in. 0.112985 0.113 newton meter N·m
kip-foot k-ft 1.35582 1.36 kilonewton meter kN·m
kip-inch k-in. 0.112985 0.113 kilonewton meter kN·m

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CONVERSIONS BETWEEN U.S. CUSTOMARY UNITS AND SI UNITS (Continued)

Times conversion factor

U.S. Customary unit Equals SI unit
Accurate Practical

Moment of inertia (area)

inch to fourth power in.4 416,231 416,000 millimeter to fourth
power mm4
inch to fourth power in.4 0.416231  106 0.416  106 meter to fourth power m4
Moment of inertia (mass)
slug foot squared slug-ft2 1.35582 1.36 kilogram meter squared kg·m2
Power
foot-pound per second ft-lb/s 1.35582 1.36 watt (J/s or N·m/s) W
foot-pound per minute ft-lb/min 0.0225970 0.0226 watt W
horsepower (550 ft-lb/s) hp 745.701 746 watt W
Pressure; stress
pound per square foot psf 47.8803 47.9 pascal (N/m2) Pa
pound per square inch psi 6894.76 6890 pascal Pa
kip per square foot ksf 47.8803 47.9 kilopascal kPa
kip per square inch ksi 6.89476 6.89 megapascal MPa
Section modulus
inch to third power in.3 16,387.1 16,400 millimeter to third power mm3
inch to third power in.3 16.3871  106 16.4  106 meter to third power m3
Velocity (linear)
foot per second ft/s 0.3048* 0.305 meter per second m/s
inch per second in./s 0.0254* 0.0254 meter per second m/s
mile per hour mph 0.44704* 0.447 meter per second m/s
mile per hour mph 1.609344* 1.61 kilometer per hour km/h
Volume
cubic foot ft3 0.0283168 0.0283 cubic meter m3
cubic inch in.3 16.3871  106 16.4  106 cubic meter m3
cubic inch in.3 16.3871 16.4 cubic centimeter (cc) cm3
gallon (231 in.3) gal. 3.78541 3.79 liter L
gallon (231 in.3) gal. 0.00378541 0.00379 cubic meter m3
*An asterisk denotes an exact conversion factor
Note: To convert from SI units to USCS units, divide by the conversion factor

5
Temperature Conversion Formulas T(°C)   [T(°F)  32]  T(K)  273.15
9
5
T(K)   [T(°F)  32]  273.15  T(°C)  273.15
9
9 9
T(°F)   T(°C)  32   T(K)  459.67
5 5

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 Traffic and
Highway
Engineering
ENHANCED Fif th Edition
SI Edition

Nicholas J. Garber
Lester A. Hoel
University of Virginia

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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 Traffic and Highway Engineering, © 2020, 2015, 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Enhanced Fifth Edition, SI Edition Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage
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 This book is dedicated to our wives,
Ada and Unni
and to our daughters,
Alison, Elaine, and Valerie
and
Julie, Lisa, and Sonja
With appreciation for the support, help, and encouragement that we received
during the years that were devoted to writing this textbook.

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 Contents

P a r t 1    j   Introduction          1
1 The Profession of Transportation    3
Importance of Transportation      3
Transportation History      6
Transportation Employment      15
Summary      21
Problems      22
References      23

2 Transportation Systems and Organizations    25

Developing a Transportation System      26
Modes of Transportation      30
Transportation Organizations      44
Summary      48
Problems      48
References      50

P a r t 2 j Traffic Operations          51
3 Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian,
the Bicyclist, the Vehicle, and the Road     53
Driver Characteristics      54
Perception-Reaction Process      57
Older Drivers’ Characteristics      58

vii

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 viii Contents

Pedestrian Characteristics      58
Bicyclists and Bicycles Characteristics      59
Vehicle Characteristics      60
Road Characteristics      84
Summary      87
Problems      88
References      91

4 Traffic Engineering Studies 93

Spot Speed Studies      94
Volume Studies      100
Methods for Conducting Spot Speed and Volume Studies       101
Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data       108
Types of Volume Counts and Analysis of Volume Data       118
Travel Time and Delay Studies      129
Parking Studies      133
Summary      144
Problems      145
References      150

5 Highway Safety    151
Issues Involved in Transportation Safety      152
Strategic Highway Safety Plans      155
Performance Measures      185
Computational Procedures for Safety Effectiveness
Evaluation Methods      210
Crash Patterns      218
Effectiveness of Safety Design Features      223
Safety Effectiveness of Some Commonly
Used Highway Design Features      225
Safety Effects of Pedestrian Facilities      233
Safety Effects of Traffic Calming Strategies      236
Safety Impact of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)       247
Summary      248
Problems      249
References      251

6 Fundamental Principles of Traffic Flow     253

Traffic Flow Elements      254
Flow-Density Relationships      258
Shock Waves in Traffic Streams      273
Gap and Gap Acceptance      285
Introduction to Queuing Theory      291
Summary      300
Problems      300

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 Contents ix

7 Intersection Design    307
Types of at-Grade Intersections      309
Design Principles for at-Grade Intersections      315
Design of Railroad Grade Crossings      356
Summary      362
Problems      363
References      366

8 Intersection Control    367
General Concepts of Traffic Control      370
Conflict Points at Intersections      370
Types of Intersection Control      371
Signal Timing for Different Color Indications      388
Freeway Ramps      438
Evaluation and Optimization of Intersection Timing Plans       443
Summary      444
Problems      444
References      447

9 Capacity and Level of Service for Highway Segments     449

Freeways      450
Multilane Highways      467
Two-Lane Highways      474
Summary      495
Problems      495
Reference      498
Appendix: Tables      499

10 Capacity and Level of Service at Signalized Intersections     517

Definitions of Some Common Terms      518
Analysis Levels and Performance Measures for Level of Service at
Signalized Intersections      521
Level of Service Criteria at Signalized Intersections       521
Methodology of Operational Analysis
for the Automobile Mode      530
Computation of Pedestrian and Bicycle Factors (  flpb, frpb) for Right- and
Left-Turn Movements from One-Way Streets      544
Computation of Pedestrians and Bicycles Factor (  flpb), for Protected or
Protected-Permitted Left-Turn Movements on Two-Way Streets      547
Determination of Lane Group Adjusted Saturation Flow Rate       548
Lane Group Capacity      554
Level of Service Computation for Pedestrian Mode       556
Level of Service for Bicycle Mode      564
Quick Estimation Method (Qem)      566
Field Determination of Saturation Flow      578

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 x Contents

Summary      581
Problems      581
References      582

P a r t 3 j Transportation Planning          583
11 The Transportation Planning Process    585
Basic Elements of Transportation Planning      586
Transportation Planning Institutions      595
Urban Transportation Planning      599
Forecasting Travel      606
Summary      622
Problems      623
References      624

12 Forecasting Travel Demand    627

Demand Forecasting Approaches      628
Trip Generation      629
Trip Distribution      638
Mode Choice      648
Traffic Assignment      662
Other Methods for Forecasting Demand      673
Estimating Freight Demand      677
Traffic Impact Studies      678
Summary      685
Problems      685
References      692

13 Evaluating Transportation Alternatives    693

Basic Issues in Evaluation      693
Evaluation Based on Economic Criteria      697
Evaluation Based on Multiple Criteria      708
Summary      721
Problems      722
References      727

P a r t 4 j Location, Geometrics, and Drainage          729

14 Highway Surveys and Location    731
Principles of Highway Location      731
Highway Survey Methods      738
Highway Earthwork and Final Plans      759
Summary      767
Problems      769
References      770

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 Contents xi

15 Geometric Design of Highway Facilities     773

Factors Influencing Highway Design      774
Design of the Alignment      790
Special Facilities for Heavy Vehicles on Steep Grades       822
Bicycle Facilities      824
Parking Facilities      828
Computer Use in Geometric Design      831
Summary      832
Problems      833
References      836

16 Highway Drainage    837
Surface Drainage      838
Highway Drainage Structures      839
Sediment and Erosion Control      841
Hydrologic Considerations      842
Unit Hydrographs      855
Hydraulic Design of Highway Drainage Structures      856
Subsurface Drainage      895
Summary      913
Problems      913
References      915
Additional Reading      916

P a r t 5 j Materials and Pavements          917

17 Soil Engineering for Highway Design     919
Soil Characteristics      919
Basic Engineering Properties of Soils      923
Classification of Soils for Highway Use      931
Soil Surveys for Highway Construction      941
Soil Compaction      946
Special Soil Tests for Pavement Design      955
Frost Action in Soils      958
Summary      959
Problems      960
References      964

18 Bituminous Materials    965
Sources of Asphalt      966
Description and Uses of Bituminous Binders      968
Properties of Asphalt Materials      971
Tests for Asphalt Materials      974
Asphalt Mixtures      989
Superpave Systems      1010

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 xii Contents

Summary      1037
Problems      1037
References      1040

19 Design of Flexible Highway Pavements     1041

Structural Components of a Flexible Pavement      1042
Soil Stabilization      1043
General Principles of Flexible Pavement Design      1050
Summary      1086
Problems      1086
References      1089

20 Design of Rigid Pavements    1091

Materials Used in Rigid Pavements      1092
Joints in Concrete Pavements      1097
Types of Rigid Highway Pavements      1099
Pumping of Rigid Pavements      1099
Stresses in Rigid Pavements      1100
Thickness Design of Rigid Pavements      1108
Summary      1172
Problems      1172
References      1174

21 Pavement Management    1177
Problems of Highway Rehabilitation      1177
Methods for Determining Roadway Condition      1180
Pavement Condition Prediction      1194
Pavement Rehabilitation      1202
Pavement Rehabilitation Programming      1203
GIS and Pavement Management      1213
Summary      1214
Problems      1214
References      1216

Appendixes    1219

Index    1245

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 Preface

Purpose in writing and revising this textbook

The purpose of Traffic and Highway Engineering, Enhanced Fifth Edition, SI Edition
is to serve as a resource textbook for students in engineering programs where courses in
transportation, highway, or traffic engineering are offered. In most cases, these courses are
usually taught in the third or fourth year but may also be covered at the graduate level.
Another purpose of this book is to serve as a reference for transportation engineers
who are in practice or are preparing for a professional engineering examination.
The initial motivation for writing this textbook, which was first published in 1988,
was many years of teaching highway and traffic engineering using textbooks that were
primarily descriptive and lacked examples that illustrated the concepts presented. We
also noted that none were comprehensive in dealing with all aspects of the subject and
that some were written with transportation engineering titles but lacked specific focus.
We also saw the need to demonstrate the challenges of the field and to explain the solid
quantitative foundations that underlie the practice of transportation engineering. We
wanted to select a mode that is ubiquitous and of worldwide application and one that
students had contact with on a daily basis. Accordingly, we decided to focus on motor
vehicle transportation and the highways that are an essential partner for this mode to
exist. Our experience and instincts proved correct as the book became known and widely
used.
The objectives of this textbook are: (1) To be a contemporary and complete text in
highway and traffic engineering that can be used both at the undergraduate and at the
graduate level for courses that emphasize highway and traffic engineering topics and
(2) To serve as a reference for engineers in the highway and traffic field and as a study
guide for use in preparing for the professional engineering license exam, review courses,
and preparation for graduate comprehensive exams in transportation engineering.
The Fourth Edition of this textbook was published in 2009 and in the ensuing
years there have been significant changes to the highway transportation literature that

xiii

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 xiv Preface

­ andated a major revision. Professors from transportation programs at twenty-one

m
major universities reviewed various editions of the book and their comments and sug-
gestions have been incorporated into the Enhanced Fifth Edition.
The book is appropriate for a transportation curriculum or as an introductory trans-
portation course because it provides an opportunity to present material that is not only
useful to engineering students who may pursue careers in or related to transportation
engineering, but is also interesting and challenging to those who intend to work in other
areas. Furthermore, this book can serve as a reference for practicing transportation engi-
neers and for use by students in graduate courses. Thus, the textbook provides a way for
students to get into the area of transportation engineering, develop a feel for what it is
about, and thereby experience the challenges of the profession

Major organizing features of the text

The scope of transportation engineering is broad and covers many modes and disciplines.
Accordingly, several approaches have been used to introduce this topic to students.
One approach is to cover all transportation modes–air, highway, pipeline, public,
rail, and water, presented in an overview course. This approach ensures comprehensive
coverage but tends to be superficial with uneven coverage of some modes and can lack
depth.
A second approach is to present the subject of transportation by generic elements,
such as vehicle and guideway characteristics, capacity analysis, planning, design, safety,
human factors, administration, finance, system models, information technology, opera-
tions, and so forth. This approach is appealing because each of the modes is considered
within a common context and the similarities between various modes are emphasized.
Our textbook, Transportation Infrastructure Engineering: A Multi-Modal Integration, is
based on this concept.
A third approach is to select a single mode and cover the relevant disciplines to pro-
vide a comprehensive treatment focused on that mode. Our book follows this approach
by emphasizing the subject of traffic and highway engineering, which is a major area
within civil engineering. It is a topic that appeals to students because they can relate
directly to problems created by motor vehicle travel and it is useful to professionals
employed by federal, state, and local agencies as well as private consulting and construc-
tion organizations.
Each chapter presents material that will help students understand the basis for trans-
portation, its importance, and the extent to which transportation pervades our daily
lives. The text also provides information about the basic areas in which transportation
engineers work: traffic operations and management, planning, design, construction, and
maintenance. Thus, this book has been categorized into five parts:
• Part 1: Introduction to the profession, its history, systems, and organizations
• Part 2: Traffic Operations
• Part 3: Transportation Planning
• Part 4: Location, Geometrics, and Drainage
• Part 5: Materials and Pavements.
The topical division of the book organizes the material so that it may be used in one
or more separate courses.

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 Preface xv

For a single course in transportation engineering, which is usually offered in the

third year where the emphasis is on traffic and highway aspects, we recommend that
material from Parts 1, 2, and 3 (Chapters 1-13) be covered.
For a course in highway engineering, where the emphasis is on highway location,
design, materials, and pavements, we recommend that material from Parts 2, 4, and 5
(Chapters 3 and 14-21) be used.
A single introductory course in transportation facilities design could include Chapters 1,
2, 3, 14, 15, 16, 19, and 21.
This book is also appropriate for use in a two-semester sequence in transportation
engineering in which traffic engineering and planning (Chapters 3-13) would be covered
in the first course, and highway design (Chapters 14-21) would be covered in the second
course.
The principal features of this textbook are:
• Comprehensive treatment of the subject.
• Extensive use of figures and tables.
• Numbering of subsections for easy reference.
• Completed examples in each chapter that illustrate the concepts presented.
• Representative homework problems at the end of each chapter.
• References and additional readings at the end of each chapter.

Changes to the new edition

In this Enhanced Fifth Edition, Chapter 4 has been revised and includes new examples
and problems. Numerous sections of the book have also been revised to ensure the accu-
racy of the content within.
In addition to responding to reviewer comments on the Fourth Edition and updating
each chapter, substantial changes were made in several chapters due to the availability
of new editions of the following professional publications:
• A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th Edition, 2011, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
• HCM 2010 Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board
• Highway Safety Manual, 1st Edition, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 2010.
• Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), 2009 Edition, U.S. Depart-
ment of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration
• Roadway Design Guide, 4th Edition 2011, American Association of Highway and
Transportation
• Transportation Planning Handbook, 3rd Edition, Institute of Transportation Engineers
New Learning Objectives have been added for each chapter, and the Problem Sets
have been thoroughly revised and updated to match the new content in the book.

Ancillaries TO accompany the text

An Instructor’s Solutions Manual, containing full solutions to every problem within the
text, and Lecture Note PowerPoint slides are available online via a secure, password-
protected Instructor’s Resource Center at http://login.cengage.com.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xvi Preface

Acknowledgments
The success of our textbook has been a source of great satisfaction, because we believe
that it has contributed to the better understanding of highway transportation in all its
dimensions. We wish to thank our colleagues and their students for selecting this book
for use in transportation courses taught in colleges and universities throughout the
United States and abroad and for the many suggestions received during the preparation
of all five editions.
The authors are indebted to many individuals who assisted in reviewing various
chapters and drafts of the original manuscript and succeeding editions. We especially
wish to thank the following individuals for their helpful comments and suggestions:
Maher Alghazzawi, Edward Beimborn, Rakim Benekohal, David Boyce, ­Stephen
Brich, Chase Buchannan, Bernard Carlson, Christian Davis, Michael Demetsky,
Brian Diefenderfer, Stacey Diefenderfer, Conrad Dudek, Lily Elefteriadou, Thomas
Freeman, Ron Gallagher, Per Garder, Alan Gesford, Richard Gunther, Jiwan Gupta,
Jerome Hall, Kathleen Hancock, Marvin Hilton, Jotin Khisty, Lydia Kostyniak, Michael
Kyte, Feng-Bor Lin, Qun Liu, Yuan Lu, Tom Maze, Catherine McGhee, Kenneth
McGhee, Richard McGinnis, Carl Monismith, Thomas Nelson, Ken O’Connell, Jack
Page, Emelinda Parentela, Brian Park, Mofreh Saleh, Mitsuru Saito, Anthony Saka,
Gerald Seeley, Robert Smith, Hamid Soleymani, James Stoner, Ed Sullivan, James
Taylor, Egons Tons, Erol Tutumluer, Joseph Vidunas, Joseph Wattleworth, Peter Weiss,
W James Wilde, F. Andrew Wolfe, Hugh Woo, Lewis Woodsen, Robert Wortman, Shaw
Yu, Yihua Ziong, and Michael Zmuda.
We especially wish to thank James Wilde for his valuable contributions to the
Enhanced Fifth Edition.
In the preparation of the Fifth Edition and earlier editions as well, we received
reviews, comments and suggestions on individual chapters from several of our colleagues
who have special expertise in the topics covered. We are most grateful for their willing-
ness to devote this effort and for their help in validating and augmenting these chapters.
They are: Richard Boaz, Michael Fontaine, Arkopal Goswami, Winston Lung, John
Miller, Adel Sadek, and Rod Turochy.
We also received a significant number of helpful comments from the reviewers of the
Fourth Edition. We wish to thank them for their insightful comments and helpful sugges-
tions many of which have been incorporated into this book. They are: Montasir Abbas,
Virginia Tech, Mashrur Chowdhury, Clemson University, Shauna Hallmark, Iowa State
University, David S. Hurwitz, Oregon State University, Wesley Marshall, University of
Colorado, Sam Owusu-Ababio, University of Wisconsin-Platteville, Kevan Shafizadeh,
California State University, Sacramento, Anuj Sharma, University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
Edward Smaglik, Northern Arizona University, and Claudia Mara Dias Wilson, New
Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology.
We also wish to thank reviewers of the Fifth Edition for their valuable feedback.
They are: Rahim Benekohal, University of Illinois, Naveen Eluru, University of Cen-
tral Florida, Daba Gedafa, University of North Dakota, Michael Knodler, University of
Massachusetts - Amherst, Suzanne LePage, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Daiheng
Ni, University of Massachusetts - Amherst, Aleksandar Stevanovic, Florida Atlantic
University, and Hao Wang, Rutgers University.

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 Preface xvii

The many organizations cited herein that permitted us to include material from their
publications deserve special mention because, without their support, our book would
not have been a reality. We also wish to thank Timothy Anderson and Alexander Sham
for their guidance in the preparation of this enhanced edition, and Rose Kernan of RPK
Editorial Services for her Production skills.

Nicholas J. Garber
Lester A. Hoel

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 Preface to the SI Edition

This edition of Traffic and Highway Engineering has been adapted to incorporate the
International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unités or SI) throughout the
book, wherever possible.

Le Système International d’Unités

The United States Customary System (USCS) of units uses FPS (foot-pound-second)
units (also called English or Imperial units). SI units are primarily the units of the MKS
(meter-kilogram-second) system. However, CGS (centimeter-gram-second) units are
often accepted as SI units, especially in textbooks.

Using SI Units in this Book

In this book, we have used both MKS and CGS units. USCS units or FPS units used in
the US Edition of the book have been converted to SI units throughout the text and
problems, wherever possible. However, in the case of data sourced from handbooks,
government standards, and product manuals, it is not only extremely difficult to convert
all values to SI, it also encroaches on the intellectual property of the source. Some data
in figures, tables, examples, and references, therefore, remain in FPS units.
To solve problems that require the use of sourced data, the sourced values can be
converted from FPS units to SI units before they are to be used in a calculation. To
obtain standardized quantities and manufacturers’ data in SI units, or country-specific
codes and regulations, readers may need to contact the appropriate government agen-
cies or authorities in their countries/regions.

xviii

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 About the Authors

Nicholas J. Garber is the Henry L. Kinnier Emeritus Professor of Civil Engineering at

the ­University of Virginia and served as chairman of the Department from 1996 to 2002.
Before joining the University of Virginia, Dr. Garber was Professor of Civil Engineering
in the faculty of Engineering of the University of Sierra Leone, where he was also the
Dean of the faculty of Engineering. He taught at the State University of New York at
Buffalo, where he played an important role in the development of the graduate program
in Transportation Engineering. Dr. Garber worked as a Design Engineer for consulting
engineering firms in London between 1961 and 1964 and as an Area Engineer and Assis-
tant Resident Engineer in Sierra Leone between 1964 and 1967.

Dr. Garber received the degree of Bachelor of Science (B.S.) in Civil Engineering from
the University of London and the Masters (M.S.) and Doctoral (Ph.D.) degrees from
Carnegie-Mellon University.

Dr. Garber’s research is in the areas of Traffic Operations and Highway Safety. He has
been the principal investigator for many federal-, state-, and private-agency-sponsored
research projects. He is the author of over 120 refereed publications and reports. He is
a co-author of the textbook Transportation Infrastructure Engineering: A Multi-Modal
Integration, Thomson/Nelson, 2007.

Dr. Garber served as a member of the Executive Committee of the Transportation

Research Board (TRB) and served for many years as chair of the TRB Committee on
Traffic Safety in Maintenance and Construction Operations, currently the Committee
on Work Zone Traffic Control. He has served as a member of several TRB Policy
Studies on speed management, size and weight of large trucks, transportation of
hazardous materials, and research priorities and coordination in highway infrastructure
and operations safety. He also served as a member of the TRB Oversight Committee
for the Strategic Highway Research Program II (SHRP II). Dr. Garber also has served
xix

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 xx About the Authors

as a member of several other national committees of the American Society of Civil

Engineers (ASCE) and The Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE). He also served
as a member of the Editorial Board of the ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering.

Dr. Garber is a member of the National Academy of Engineering. He is a recipient of

many awards, including the TRB D. Grant Mickle Award, the ITE Edmund R. Ricker
Transportation Safety Award, and the American Roads and Transportation Builders
(ARTBA) S. S. Steinberg Outstanding Educator Award. He is listed in Who’s Who in
Science and Engineering and Who’s Who in the world.

Dr. Garber is a Distinguished member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, a

Fellow of the Institute of Transportation Engineers, a Fellow of the Institution of Civil
Engineers of the United Kingdom, a member of the American Society for Engineering
Education, and a member of Chi Epsilon.

Lester A. Hoel is the L. A. Lacy Distinguished Professor of Engineering Emeritus, at the

University of Virginia. He held the Hamilton Professorship in Civil Engineering from
1974 to 1999. From 1974 to 1989 he was Chairman of the Department of Civil Engineer-
ing and from 2002 to 2009 was Director of the Center for Transportation Studies. Previ-
ously, he was Professor of Civil Engineering and Associate Director, Transportation
Research Institute at Carnegie-Mellon University. He has been a registered professional
engineer in California, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. His degrees are: BCE from the City
College of New York, MCE from the Polytechnic Institute of New York, and the Doc-
torate in Engineering from the University of California at Berkeley.

Dr. Hoel’s area of expertise is the management, planning, and design of surface trans-
portation infrastructure with emphasis on highway and transit systems. He is an author
of over 150 publications and was co-editor (with G.E. Gray) of the textbook Public
Transportation, and co-author (with N.J. Garber and A.W. Sadek) of the textbook
Transportation Infrastructure Engineering: A Multi-Modal Integration and Lead Editor
of the Textbook, Intermodal Transportation: Moving Freight in A Global Economy.

Dr. Hoel is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, a Distinguished Mem-

ber of the American Society of Civil Engineers, a Fellow of the Institute of Transporta-
tion Engineers, a member of the American Society for Engineering Education and the
Norwegian Academy of Technical Sciences. As a student, he was elected to the national
honor societies Chi Epsilon, Tau Beta Pi, and Sigma Xi. He was a member of the Execu-
tive Committee of the Transportation Research Board (TRB) from 1981 to 1989 and
from 1995 to 2004 and served as its Chairman in 1986. He was an ex-officio member of
the National Research Council (NRC) Governing Board of the National Academies and
the Transportation Research Board Division Chairman for NRC Oversight from 1995
to 2004. In that capacity, he was responsible for oversight of the NRC review process for
all TRB policy studies produced during that period. He served as the Chairman of two
congressionally mandated policy studies. He also has served on TRB technical commit-
tees and NCHRP/TCRP panels. He was a member of the TRB Transit Research Analy-
sis Committee, whose purpose is to advise the Federal Transit Administration on its
research program, and was a member of the National Research Council Report Review
Committee, in which he oversees the review process for policy studies prepared by the
National Research Council of the National Academies.

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 About the Authors xxi

He is a recipient of the American Society of Civil Engineers’ Huber Research Prize, the
Transportation Research Board Pyke Johnson Award, the Highway Users Federation
Stanley Gustafson Leadership Award, the TRB W.N. Carey, Jr. Distinguished Service
Award, the ASCE Frank Masters Transportation Engineering Award, the ASCE James
Laurie Prize, the Virginia Society of Professional Engineers Service Award, the Institute
of Transportation Engineers’ Wilbur Smith Distinguished Educator Award, the American
Road and Transportation Builders S. S. Steinberg Outstanding Educator Award, and
the Council of University Transportation Centers Distinguished Professor Award. He is
listed in Who’s Who in America and Who’s Who in the World. He resides in Saint Helena,
California.

Dr. Hoel has served as president of the Council of University Transportation Centers
and on the ASCE accreditation board for engineering and technology. He was chairman
of the Board of Regents of the Eno Transportation Foundation Leadership Center and
served on its Board of Advisors. He is Senior Editor of the Journal of Transportation
of the Institute of Transportation Engineers and has served on the editorial boards of
transportation journals, including Transportation Research, Journal of Advanced Trans-
portation, Journal of Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, Journal of Specialized Trans-
portation, Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, and Urban Resources.

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 Digital Resources

NEW DIGITAL SOLUTION FOR YOUR ENGINEERING CLASSROOM

WebAssign is a powerful digital solution designed by educators to enrich the engineer-
ing teaching and learning experience. With a robust computational engine at its core,
WebAssign provides extensive content, instant assessment, and superior support.
WebAssign’s powerful question editor allows engineering instructors to create their
own questions or modify existing questions. Each question can use any combination
of text, mathematical equations and formulas, sound, pictures, video, and interactive
HTML elements. Numbers, words, phrases, graphics, and sound or video files can be
randomized so that each student receives a different version of the same question.
In addition to common question types such as multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank,
essay, and numerical, you can also incorporate robust answer entry palettes (­mathPad,
chemPad, calcPad, physPad, pencilPad, Graphing Tool) to input and grade symbolic
expressions, equations, matrices, and chemical structures using powerful computer
algebra systems. You can even use ­Camtasia to embed “clicker” questions that are
automatically scored and recorded in the ­GradeBook.

WebAssign offers engineering instructors the following

• The ability to create and edit algorithmic and numerical exercises.
• The opportunity to generate randomized iterations of algorithmic and numerical exer-
cises. When instructors assign numerical WebAssign homework exercises (­engineering
math exercises), the WebAssign program offers them the ability to generate and assign
their students differing versions of the same engineering math exercise. The computational
engine extends beyond and provides the luxury of solving for correct solutions/answers.
• The ability to create and customize numerical questions, allowing students to enter
units, use a specific number of significant digits, use a specific number of decimal
xxii

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 Digital Resources xxiii

places, respond with a computed answer, or answer within a different tolerance

value than the default.
Visit https://www.webassign.com/instructors/features/ to learn more. To create an account,
instructors can go directly to the signup page at http://www.webassign.net/signup.html.

MindTap Reader
Available via WebAssign, MindTap Reader is Cengage’s next-generation eBook for
engineering students.
The MindTap Reader provides more than just text learning for the student. It offers
a variety of tools to help our future engineers learn chapter concepts in a way that
­resonates with their workflow and learning styles.
• Personalize their ­experience
Within the MindTap Reader, students can h ­ ighlight key concepts, add notes, and book-
mark pages. These are collected in My Notes, ensuring they will have their own study
guide when it comes time to study for exams.

• Flexibility at their fingertips

With access to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary and the book’s internal glossary, students
can personalize their study experience by creating and collating their own custom flash-
cards. The ReadSpeaker feature reads text aloud to students, so they can learn on the
go—wherever they are.

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 xxiv Digital Resources

• Review concepts at point of use

Within WebAssign, a “Read It” button at the bottom of each question links students to
corresponding sections of the textbook, enabling access to the MindTap Reader at the
precise moment of learning.

The MindTap Mobile App

Available on iOS and Android smartphones, the MindTap Mobile App provides conve-
nience. Students can access their entire textbook anyplace and anytime. They can take
notes, highlight important passages, and have their text read aloud whether they are
online or off.

To download the mobile app, visit https://www.cengage.com/mindtap/mobileapp.

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 P a r t 1

Introduction

T
ransportation is essential for a nation’s development and growth. In both the public
and private sector, opportunities for engineering careers in transportation are excit-
ing and rewarding. Elements are constantly being added to the world’s highway,
rail, airport, and mass transit systems, and new techniques are being applied for operat-
ing and maintaining the systems safely and economically. Many organizations and agen-
cies exist to plan, design, build, operate, and maintain the nation’s transportation system.

Chapter 1 Chapter 2
The Profession of Transportation Transportation Systems and Organizations
Importance of Transportation Developing a Transportation System
Transportation History Modes of Transportation
Transportation Employment Transportation Organizations
Summary Summary
Problems Problems
References References

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 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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 Chapter 1

The Profession of
Transportation

F
or as long as the human race has existed, transportation has played a significant role
by facilitating trade, commerce, conquest, and social interaction while consuming
a considerable portion of time and resources. The primary need for transportation
has been economic, involving personal travel in search of food or work and travel for
the exchange of goods and commodities; in addition, travel has been spurred by explo-
ration, a quest for personal fulfillment, and the desire to improve a society or a nation.
The movement of people and goods, which is the basis of transportation, always has
been undertaken to accomplish these basic objectives or tasks, which require transfer
from one location to another. For example, a farmer must transport produce to market,
a doctor must see a patient in the office or in the hospital, and a salesperson must visit
clients located throughout a territory. Every day, millions of people leave their homes
and travel to a workplace—be it a factory, office, classroom, or distant city.

Chapter Objectives:
• Explain the importance of transportation in a modern and developed society.
• Become familiar with the critical issues in transportation.
• Understand how transportation technology has evolved over time.
• Discuss the principal technical areas and employment opportunities in transporta-
tion and highway engineering.
• Identify and discuss the challenges faced by transportation engineers in the twenty-
first century.

1.1 Importance of Transportation
Tapping natural resources and markets and maintaining a competitive edge over other
regions and nations are linked closely to the quality of the transportation system.
The speed, cost, and capacity of available transportation have a significant impact on
3

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 4 Part 1 Introduction

the economic vitality of an area and the ability to make maximum use of its natural
resources. Examination of most developed and industrialized societies indicates that
they have been noted for high-quality transportation systems and services. Nations with
well-developed maritime systems (such as the British Empire in the 1900s) once ruled
vast colonies located around the globe. In more modern times, countries with advanced
transportation systems—such as the United States, Canada, and countries in Asia and
Europe—are leaders in industry and commerce. Without the ability to transport manu-
factured goods and raw materials and without technical know-how, a country is unable
to maximize the comparative advantage it may have in the form of natural or human
resources. Countries that lack an abundance of natural resources rely heavily on trans-
portation in order to import raw materials and export manufactured products.

1.1.1 Transportation and Economic Growth

Good transportation, in and of itself, will not assure success in the marketplace, as
the availability of transportation is a necessary but insufficient condition for economic
growth. However, the absence of supportive transportation services will serve to limit
or hinder the potential for a nation or region to achieve its economic potential. Thus,
if a society expects to develop and grow, it must have a strong internal transporta-
tion system consisting of good roads, rail systems, as well as excellent linkages to the
rest of the world by sea and air. Transportation demand is a byproduct derived from
the needs and desires of people to travel or to transfer their goods from one place to
another. Transportation is a necessary condition for human interaction and economic
competitiveness.
The availability of transportation facilities can strongly influence the growth and
development of a region or nation. Good transportation permits the specialization of
industry or commerce, reduces costs for raw materials or manufactured goods, and
increases competition between regions, thus resulting in reduced prices and greater
choices for the consumer. Transportation is also a necessary element of government ser-
vices, such as delivering mail, providing national defense, and assisting U.S. territories.
Throughout history, transportation systems (such as those that existed in the Roman
Empire and those that now exist in the United States) were developed and built to ensure
economic development and efficient mobilization in the event of national emergencies.

1.1.2 Social Costs and Benefits of Transportation

The improvement of a region’s economic position by virtue of improved transportation
does not come without costs. Building vast transportation systems requires enormous
resources of energy, material, and land. In major cities, transportation can consume as
much as half of all the land area. An aerial view of any major metropolis will reveal vast
acreage used for railroad terminals, airports, parking lots, and freeways. Transportation
has other negative effects as well. Travel is not without danger; every mode of transpor-
tation brings to mind some major disaster—be it the sinking of the Titanic, the explo-
sion of the zeppelin Hindenburg, the infrequent but dramatic passenger air crashes, and
frequent highway crashes. In addition, transportation can create noise, spoil the natural
beauty of an area, change the environment, pollute air and water, and consume energy
resources.
Society has indicated a willingness to accept some risk and changes to the natural
environment in order to gain the advantages that result from constructing new trans-
portation systems. Society also values many social benefits brought about by good

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 Chapter 1 The Profession of Transportation 5

transportation. Providing medical and other services to rural areas and enabling peo-
ple to socialize who live some distance apart are just two examples of the benefits that
transportation provides.
A major task for the modern transportation engineer is to balance society’s need
for reasonably safe and efficient transportation with the costs involved. Thus, the most
efficient and cost-effective system is created while assuring that the environment is not
compromised or destroyed. In carrying out this task, the transportation engineer must
work closely with the public and elected officials and needs to be aware of modern engi-
neering practices to ensure that the highest quality transportation systems are built con-
sistent with available funds and accepted social policy.

1.1.3 Transportation in the United States

Is transportation very important? Why should you study the subject and perhaps con-
sider transportation as a professional career? Many “gee whiz” statistics can be cited to
convince the reader that transportation is vital to a nation, but before we do so, consider
how transportation impacts people’s daily lives.
Perusal of a local or national newspaper will inevitably produce one or more articles
on transportation. The story might involve a traffic fatality, a road construction proj-
ect, the price of gasoline, trends in purchases of motor vehicles, traffic enforcement and
road conditions, new laws (such as cell phone use while driving), motor vehicle license
requirements, neighborhood protests regarding road widening or extensions, proposals to
increase road user fees or gasoline taxes to pay for maintenance and construction projects,
the need for public transit services, or the debate over “sprawl” versus “smart growth.”
The enormity of transportation can be demonstrated by calculating the amount of land
consumed for transportation facilities, such as sidewalks, parking lots, roads, driveways,
shoulders, and bike paths, which in some cases can exceed 50 percent of the land area.
The examples cited suggest that transportation issues are largely perceived at local
and state levels where people live. Mayors and governors are elected based on their
promises to improve transportation without raising taxes. At the national level, trans-
portation does not reach the “top 10” concerns, and transportation is rarely mentioned
in a presidential address or national debate. At this level, issues of defense, health care,
immigration, voting rights, taxes, and international relations take center stage. While
many Americans probably know the name of the Secretary of State or Defense, few
could answer the question, “Who is the Secretary of Transportation?”
The Executive Committee of the Transportation Research Board of the National Acad-
emies periodically develops a list of “critical issues” in transportation, which are posted on
the committee’s Web site. Among the issues identified are the following: (1) congestion;
(2) emergency preparedness, response, and mitigation, such as vulnerability to terrorist
strikes and natural disasters; (3) energy, environment, and climate change; (4) finance and
equity; (5) safety; (6) twentieth-century institutions mismatched to twenty-first-century mis-
sions; and (7) human and intellectual capital as reflected in the inadequate investment in
innovation. Each issue suggests the importance of transportation and the priorities of con-
cern to the transportation professional community.
The importance of transportation in the United States can also be illustrated by
citing statistics that demonstrate its national and worldwide influence. For example,
data furnished by agencies such as the Bureau of Transportation Statistics of the U.S.
Department of Transportation, the Federal Highway Administration, and the U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics provide major indices, such as the following: approximately
18 percent of U.S. household expenditure is related to transportation. Regarding

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 6 Part 1 Introduction

energy ­consumption, transportation accounts for about 28 to 29 percent of total energy

consumption in the United States, of which approximately 95 percent of the energy uti-
lized for propelling transport vehicles is derived from petroleum products. The extent
of U.S. travel is summarized by the almost 90 percent of the driving age population in
the United States that possess a license to operate a motor vehicle and the 19,000 –
24,000 km per person travelled annually in the United States during the past decade.
Transportation infrastructure is vast; for example, in the United States there are almost
6.43 million km of paved roadway, of which 1.2 million km are used for intercity travel
and 75,000 km are interstate highways. In addition, there are approximately 225,300 km
of freight railroads, 5300 public use airports, 41,850 km of navigable channels, and
580,000 km of oil and gas pipelines. These statistics demonstrate that transportation
will continue to play a key role in the economy even as it shifts from manufacturing to
a focus on services, which is the largest and fastest growing sector in the U.S. economy.

1.2 Transportation History
The story of transportation in the United States has been the subject of many books; the
story covers a 300-year period and includes the development of many modes of transpor-
tation. Among the principal topics are travel by foot and horseback, automobile and truck
travel, development of roads and highways, the building of canals and inland waterways,
expansion of the West, construction of railroads, the use of public transportation (such as
bus and metro systems in cities), and the development of air transportation. A summary
of the historical highlights of transportation development is shown in Table 1.1.

1.2.1 An Overview of U.S. Transportation History

In its formative years, the United States was primarily rural, with a population of about
4 million in the late 1700s. Only about 200,000 people, or 5 percent of the population,
lived in cities; the remainder inhabited rural areas and small communities. That pattern
remained until the early 1900s. During the twentieth century, the urban population con-
tinued to increase such that at present over 75 percent of the U.S. population lives in
urban or suburban areas. Large cities have been declining in population, and increases
have occurred in suburban and rural areas. These changes have a significant impact on
the need for highway transportation.

Early Road Building and Planning

During the eighteenth century, travel was by horseback or in animal-drawn vehicles on
dirt roads. As the nation expanded westward, roads were built to accommodate the set-
tlers. In 1794, the Lancaster Turnpike, the first toll road, was built to connect the Penn-
sylvania cities of Lancaster and Philadelphia. The nineteenth century brought further
expansion of U.S. territorial boundaries, and the population increased from 3 million to
76 million. Transportation continued to expand with the nation. The remainder of the
nineteenth century saw considerable activity, particularly in canal and railroad building.

The Canal Boom

An era of canal construction began in the 1820s when the Erie Canal was completed in
1825 and other inland waterways were constructed. Beginning in the 1830s, this efficient means

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 Chapter 1 The Profession of Transportation 7

Table 1.1 Significant Events in Transportation History

1794: First toll road, the Lancaster Turnpike, is 1919: U.S. Navy and Coast Guard crew cross the
­completed. Atlantic in a flying boat.
1807: Robert Fulton demonstrates a steamboat on the 1927: Charles Lindbergh flies solo from New York to
Hudson River. Within several years, steamboats Paris.
are operating along the East Coast, on the Great 1956: Construction of the 68,400-km Interstate and
Lakes, and on many major rivers. Defense Highway System begins.
1808: Secretary of Treasury Albert Gallatin recom- 1959: St. Lawrence Seaway is completed, opening the
mends a federal transportation plan to Congress, nation’s fourth seacoast.
but it is not adopted.
1961: Manned spaceflight begins.
1825: Erie Canal is completed.
1967: U.S. Department of Transportation is
1830: Operations begin on Baltimore and Ohio Rail- established.
road, first railroad constructed for general trans-
portation purposes. 1969: Men land on moon and return.
1838: Steamship service on the Atlantic Ocean begins. 1972: San Francisco’s Bay Area Rapid Transit System
is completed.
1857: First passenger elevator in the United States
begins operation, presaging high-density urban 1981: Space shuttle Columbia orbits and lands safely.
development. 1991: The Interstate highway system is essentially
1865: First successful petroleum pipeline is laid complete.
between a producing field and a railroad terminal 1992: Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) usher
point in western Pennsylvania. in a new era of research and development in
1866: Bicycles are introduced in the United States. ­transportation.
1869: Completion of first transcontinental railroad. 1995: A 259,100-km National Highway System (NHS)
is approved.
1887: First daily railroad service from coast to coast.
1998: Electric vehicles are introduced as an alterna-
1888: Frank Sprague introduces the first regular tive to internal combustion engines.
­electric streetcar service in Richmond, Va.
2000: A new millennium ushers in a transportation–
1903: The Wright brothers fly first airplane 37 m at information technology revolution.
Kitty Hawk, N.C.
2005: Energy-efficient autos such as hybrid vehicles
1914: Panama Canal opens for traffic. gain in popularity and ethanol production increases.
1915–18: Inland waters and U.S. merchant fleet play 2011: Global warming and climate change become
prominent roles in World War I freight movement. an emerging issue in planning, design, and
1916: Interurban electric-rail mileage reaches a peak ­emergency preparedness aspects of highway
of 25,000 km. ­transportation.

of transporting goods was replaced by the railroads, which were being developed at the same
time. By 1840, the number of kilometers of canals and railroads was approximately equal
(5150 km), but railroads, which could be constructed almost anywhere in this vast, undevel-
oped land at a much lower cost, superseded canals as a form of intercity transportation. Thus,
after a short-lived period of intense activity, the era of canal construction came to an end.

The Railroad Era

The railroad was the emerging mode of transportation during the second half of the nine-
teenth century, as railway lines were spanning the entire continent. Railroads dominated
intercity passenger and freight transportation from the late 1800s to the early 1920s. Railroad

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 8 Part 1 Introduction

passenger transportation enjoyed a resurgence during World War II but has steadily declined
since then, owing to the competitiveness of the automobile. Freight rail was consolidated and
remains viable. Railroad mileage reached its peak of about 426 500 km by 1915.

Transportation in Cities
Each decade has seen continuous population growth within cities, and with it, the
demand for improvements in urban transportation systems. Urban transportation began
with horse-drawn carriages on city streets; these later traveled on steel tracks. They
were ­succeeded by cable cars, electric streetcars, underground electrified railroads, and
bus transportation. City travel by public transit has been replaced largely by the use of
­automobiles on urban highways, although rail rapid transit and light rail systems have
been built in many large and medium-sized cities since the 1970s.

The Automobile and Interstate Highways

The invention and development of the automobile created a revolution in transportation
in the United States during the twentieth century. No facet of American life has been
untouched by this invention; the automobile (together with the airplane) has changed
the way we travel within and between cities. Only four automobiles were produced in
1895. By 1901, there were 8000 registered vehicles, and by 1910, there were over 450,000
cars and trucks. Between 1900 and 1910, 80,500 km of surfaced roads were constructed,
but major highway-building programs did not begin in earnest until the late 1920s. By
1920, more people traveled by private automobile than by rail transportation. By 1930,
23 million passenger cars and 3 million trucks were registered. In 1956, Congress autho-
rized a 68,400 km interstate highway network, which is now completed.

The Birth of Aviation

Aviation was in its infancy at the beginning of the twentieth century with the Wright
brothers’ first flight, which took place in 1903. Both World Wars I and II were catalysts in
the development of air transportation. The carrying of mail by air provided a reason for
government support of this new industry. Commercial airline passenger service began to
grow, and by the mid-1930s, coast-to-coast service was available. After World War II, the
expansion of air transportation was phenomenal. The technological breakthroughs that
developed during the war (coupled with the training of pilots) created a new industry
that replaced both ocean-going steamships and passenger railroads.

1.2.2 Evolution of America’s Highways

To commemorate the 200th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Indepen-
dence in 1776, the Federal Highway Administration published a landmark commem-
orative volume titled America’s Highways that described the evolution of the federal
government’s involvement in roads, which culminated with the establishment of the
U.S. Bureau of Public Roads and its successor, the Federal Highway Administration.
The book follows the major milestones in highway transportation, beginning with the
colonial period and early settlement, when roads were unpaved and nearly impass-
able, with few bridges to span streams and rivers, and horse paths were unsuited for
wheeled vehicles. It concludes with the growth of motor vehicle transportation in the

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 Chapter 1 The Profession of Transportation 9

twentieth century and its impact on highway transportation. The following sections
summarize this evolutionary journey.

Turnpikes and Canals

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, surface transportation improvements were
focused on improving both roads and inland waterways, as together they comprised the
internal network of transportation for a new nation led by its first president, George
Washington, who had been elected in 1789. Federal interest and support for “internal
improvements” was limited, as these functions were seen as the purview of states. The
earliest attempt by a state government to develop a plan to build roads and canals was
in Pennsylvania, when the legislature authorized private companies to build and main-
tain roads and canals and collect tolls that would cover costs and yield a profit for its
investors—a practice still prevalent in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
(This method of financing was rejected for the U.S. Interstate Highway System, but
recent trends have been moving toward this earlier financing model as states are turning
to the private sector for “partners” to own, build, and maintain state highways.)
In 1791, the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike Road Company was formed, hav-
ing been granted a charter to build a 100-km highway that would include a 6-m hard sur-
face and a 15-m right-of-way with grades not to exceed 7 percent. The road, designed by
the well-known Scottish road builder John Loudon McAdam, was completed in three
years and served the travel needs of horse-drawn coaches and freight-carrying wagons.
The road served as a model for similar toll roads constructed in East Coast states con-
necting cities and towns. The Lancaster “Pike” was so named because the toll gate was
similar to a pivoted lancer’s pike. It proved to be a success, yielding up to a 15 percent
annual return on investment. It was later extended across the state to Pittsburgh.
Spurred on by the success of the Philadelphia and Lancaster Road, a “turnpike building
frenzy” ensued with construction in Connecticut, New York, Maryland, and Virginia. By
1850, thousands of kilometers of turnpikes were in existence. Not many were as successful as
the Lancaster Pike, and eventually there were failures due to low traffic demand and com-
petition from canals and railroads. (Similar experiences were noted in the twentieth century,
when many toll roads went bankrupt due to competition from free roads and other modes.)
The 1800s were a dark period for roads because other modes were dominant and
vehicle technology had not changed since the time of the Roman Empire. Accordingly,
animal and wind power continued to be the means of propulsion. Since the United States
had an extensive system of rivers and lakes, it was logical that water navigation was a pri-
ority, and the building of canals would be a natural enhancement. Then in 1830, the “iron
horse” appeared on the scene, and for the next 100 years, the railroad would dominate.
Railroads initially appeared in Europe and were horse drawn. They, too, were regarded
as “public highways” and had little to offer other than serving as short extensions from
quarries to rivers as roads and canals were already in place.
The most extensive and successful of all canal projects was the Erie Canal, a 590 km
connection between the Hudson River in New York and Lake Erie, Pennsylvania.
C
­ onstruction began in 1817 and was completed in 1825. It had a trapezoidal cross section
12.5 m wide at the top and 8.5 m at the bottom, and it had a uniform depth of 1.2 m. The
canal ascended and descended a height of 206 m through 83 separate locks. Eighteen
aqueducts spanned rivers, and numerous bridges connected roads on opposite sides of
the canal. Since the profession of civil engineering had yet to be established, this project
became known as the first school of civil engineering in the United States. The canal was

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 10 Part 1 Introduction

­ rofitable, which convinced other states to undertake similar projects. However, most were
p
not “money-makers” for their investors, and eventually canals became largely extinct.

A National Plan and a National Road

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, sources of revenue for highways and canals
included tolls, state and local taxes, and donated labor, while the federal government
played a small (albeit important) role. The first act of Congress to support road build-
ing occurred in 1796. This authorized Colonel Ebenezer Zane (1741–1811) to build a
515-km post road (called Zane’s Trace) through the northwest territory (now Ohio)
between Wheeling, Virginia (which became West Virginia in 1863) and Limestone (now
Maysville), Kentucky. The road was primitive, following Native American trails, but it
was to serve as a mail route and later was widened for wagon travel. It became part of
the National Road in 1825. The federal government did not pay for the road but permit-
ted Colonel Zane to purchase selected tracts of land where the road crossed three major
rivers. Unfortunately, this small beginning of federal involvement in early road develop-
ment was to have little influence on future events.
During the administration of President Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809), two events
of major significance occurred that had an impact on road and canal building. The first
was the completion of the Gallatin Report on internal improvements, and the second
was the authorization of the Cumberland Road.
Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, at the request of the U.S. Senate, prepared
the first national transportation inventory in 1807. The report, titled Roads, Canals, Har-
bors and Rivers, was submitted to Congress on April 4, 1808. The document contained
a detailed program of “internal improvements” intended to increase the wealth of this
undeveloped nation, as had occurred in France and England. The proposed 10-year pro-
gram contained projects totaling $20 million and was to be financed by the federal gov-
ernment. This bold plan was fiercely debated in Congress but was not completed in time
to be acted upon by President Jefferson. Rather, the bill reached the desk of President
James Madison (1809–1817), who vetoed it on the grounds that direct federal support for
internal improvements was unconstitutional as these matters were to be dealt with by the
states. Gallatin earlier had proposed that the states use a portion of federal land sales for
building roads, and some states did adopt this funding mechanism.
The Cumberland Road (later known as the National Road) is the first example of
federal aid for a major road project in the United States. On March 29,1806, President
Thomas Jefferson signed a bill authorizing the construction of a 200-km road from Cum-
berland, Maryland, to Wheeling, Virginia, on the Ohio River. Road construction began
in 1811, and the project was completed in 1818. In 1820, Congress appropriated addi-
tional funds to extend the road to the banks of the Mississippi River. Appropriations
continued until 1838, and construction ceased in 1840 at Vandalia, Illinois. The National
Road, now about 1200 km in length, was poised to open the western territories for settle-
ment. However, this was not to be, because the federal government ceded the road to
those states through which it traversed, and soon after, railroads were constructed—fur-
ther sealing the National Road’s fate.

The Demise of Federal Support for Roads

Another blow for federal support for road building was struck by President Andrew
Jackson (1829–1837), who vetoed a bill that would have allowed the Secretary of the
Treasury to purchase $150,000 in shares to help build a 100-km turnpike from Maysville

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 Chapter 1 The Profession of Transportation 11

to Louisville in Kentucky. His veto was based on the continuing belief by U.S. presidents
that since “internal improvements” were not specified in the Constitution as a federal
responsibility, he could not sign the bill. Jackson’s decision effectively ended attempts to
secure federal funds for roads. The Maysville Turnpike was eventually completed with
the support of state and private funds and was used as a mail route by the government.
In subsequent years, with the exception of the National Road, the responsibility
for building toll roads fell to the states and private investors. Military roads were built
during this period, most of them in the territories, and consisted primarily of clearings
for wagon wheels. The total span of military roads was about 33,800 km, and they often
served as the sole routes available to settlers moving westward. Following the Civil War
(1860–1865), there was a reversal in federal policy that provided significant support to a
new and emerging technology that would open the West to development and span the
continent. The railroad era was about to begin.

Steamboats and Railroads

A “golden age” of transportation was to emerge in the nineteenth century, thanks
to the genius of James Watt (1736–1819), a Scottish inventor and engineer who, with
his partner Matthew Bolton (1728–1809), perfected and produced the steam engine.
Steam engines originally were used to pump water from tin and copper mines and for
spinning and weaving. Later, they were adapted to propel marine vessels and steam
locomotives. The introduction of the first successful steamboat in 1807 is credited to
Robert Fulton (1765–1815), who, with his partner Robert Livingston (1746–1813),
used a 20-horsepower Watt and Bolton steam engine to propel a 40.5-m-long passen-
ger vessel. The Clermont (Figure 1.1) left New York City for Albany, New York, on a
2­ 40-km journey up the Hudson River and arrived safely after 30 hours. This demon-
stration proved the viability of steamboat travel on rivers and lakes, and thus steam-
boats became instrumental in opening the West for settlement during the first half of
the nineteenth century. By 1859, 2000 steamboats plied the Mississippi and its tribu-
taries. The federal government subsidized inland waterway transportation, primarily

Figure 1.1 The Clermont—1807

SOURCE: Courtesy of the Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-110382

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 12 Part 1 Introduction

on the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, the Great Lakes, and coastal ports. However, by
1850, it was increasingly clear that the railroad was the dominant mode compared to
waterways and turnpikes because it was faster, cheaper, and more adaptable.
During the 10 years prior to the Civil War, railroad construction was widespread, with
entrepreneurs and financiers seeking to gain fortunes while meeting a growing demand
for rail connections between towns, villages, lakes, and seaports. To encourage railroad
expansion westward, the federal government provided land grants to railroads totaling
over 1.5 million ha. Rail lines were built without a system-wide plan, and the result was
a plethora of unconnected short lines with varying track gauges. Later, many of these
lines would form the basis for a system-wide network connecting major cities, all with a
common track gauge of 1.435 m. At the time of the Civil War, two-thirds of all railroad
mileage was in the Northern states—an advantage that proved increasingly significant
as the war progressed. After hostilities ended, railroads expanded rapidly (Figure 1.2),
paralleling rivers and canals and heading inland and westward. Fierce c­ ompetition ensued
between steam packet ships and the railroads in a brutal and unregulated environment

Figure 1.2 Workmen Repairing Railroad Track—1895

SOURCE: Jackson, William Henry, 1843–1942. World’s Transportation Commission photograph collection,
Library of Congress, LC-W7-637

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 Chapter 1 The Profession of Transportation 13

leading to the demise of waterways for moving freight and the dominance of railroads
for moving freight and passengers. Additional land grants totaling 14.8 million ha were
given to 50 railroads to encourage expansion westward. Eventually, four transcontinen-
tal railroads were completed (the first in 1869), with all liberally subsidized by gener-
ous federal land grants. This frenzy of railroad construction during the last half of the
­nineteenth century had produced approximately 418,400 km of railroad track as the
nation entered the twentieth century.

The Automobile and Resurgence of Highways

Highway transportation remained primitive and unchanged during the nineteenth
­century, as railroads dominated the landscape. Long-distance freight and stagecoach
companies had been driven out of business, and toll road revenues continued to decline.
Even though this “dark age” of roads seemed to be unending, over 2.4 million km of
rural roads were built—most composed of natural soil or stones that could be muddy
in rainy seasons and dusty in dry ones. Rural roads were paid for and maintained by
local citizens through property taxes, land donations, and donated labor. In cities and
towns, the transportation situation was considerably better, as streets were paved with
granite blocks, and public transit was introduced by 1880. Electric or cable streetcars
(Figure 1.3) were common by the turn of the century.
The introduction of bicycles in the United States occurred as early as 1817. Bicycle
transportation did not become practical for the general public until the introduction
of a “safety bicycle,” which used two wheels of equal size and pneumatic tires. Bicycle
riding became a popular pastime, and many “wheel clubs” were formed followed by
a national organization called the League of American Wheelmen. This organization
is still in existence as the League of American Bicyclists, and reflects a persistent and
increasing demand for improved bicycle facilities. (Figure 1.4.)
To their dismay, the new bicycle owners were soon to discover that a ride into the
country was nearly impossible to complete due to the poor quality of roads, many of
which were rutted, uneven, and lacked bridge links over streams and rivers. Thus was
formed the first “highway lobby” seeking to influence the building of “good roads.”
A Good Roads Association was formed in 1891 in Missouri, with similar organizations to
follow in other states. Ironically, an ally in this movement were the railroads themselves,
whose representatives believed that if roads were improved, access to rail stations would
be easier, thus increasing their market. Rail cars were outfitted with exhibits to demon-
strate the benefits of “good roads” and how they should be built. These trains traveled
throughout the nation, stopping at cities, towns, and villages and convincing citizens and
politicians alike that it was time for the nation to begin investing in roads. Thus, “good
road” trains roamed the nation proclaiming the benefits of a transport mode that by the
end of the twentieth century would contribute to rail travel’s own demise.
The introduction of a successful and practical gasoline-powered vehicle was the
result of inventions by Gottlieb Daimler in 1885 and Karl Benz in 1886 and sparked
a fury of innovation that culminated in a vehicle design that could be mass produced.
The Ford Model T transformed the automobile market from that of a “rich man’s toy”
to “everyman’s transport.” The Ford Motor Company, led by Henry Ford, began to
mass-produce cars selling for $950, and production of this model (available in all colors
as long as they were black) totaled 15.5 million by the time production ceased in 1927
(Figure 1.5). Not to be outdone, other manufacturers followed suit, and an orgy of
auto building began such that by 1921 there were 10.5 million registered vehicles in the
United States.

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 14 Part 1 Introduction

Figure 1.3 Cable Car in Tacoma, Washington—1906

SOURCE: Courtesy of the Library of Congress, LC-USZ6-173

The next 50 years would witness a transformation in highways, from largely unpaved
rural roads to an impressive network of rural and urban highways, despite an economic
depression (1929–1939) and World War II (1941–1945). However, along with the mobil-
ity offered by automobiles (and later trucks) came traffic congestion, traffic fatalities,
and diminished environmental quality. In 1956, highway construction entered a new
era with the authorization of a 68,400 km National Interstate Highway System, which
when completed at the end of the twentieth century would total 76,900 km and change
the way people lived and traveled. Thus, the highway revolution (which began with the

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 Chapter 1 The Profession of Transportation 15

Figure 1.4 Bicycling on the Golden Gate Bridge

SOURCE: Moreno Novello/Shutterstock.com

invention of the internal combustion engine in 1885 and its mass production in 1908)
coupled with the introduction of “heavier than air” flight in 1903 dominated travel and
reduced the role of rail and water transportation.
Looking ahead, can we expect that things will remain as they have in the past or will
history be the prologue for future changes in transportation?

1.3 Transportation Employment
Employment opportunities in transportation exist in the United States as well as in many
other countries throughout the world. The principal areas of this field are logistics and
supply-chain management, vehicle design and manufacture, provision of services related
to transportation, and planning, design, construction, operations, and management of
the infrastructure required if vehicles are to function as intended.

1.3.1 Logistics and Supply-Chain Management

The physical-distribution aspect of transportation, known as business logistics or phys-
ical-distribution management, is concerned with the movement and storage of freight
between the primary source of raw materials and the location of the finished manufactured
product. Logistics is the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient
and effective flow and storage of goods, services, and related information from origination

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 16 Part 1 Introduction

Figure 1.5 Parked Automobiles—1920

SOURCE: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Theodor Horydczak Collection,
LC-H823-V01-004

to consumption as required by the customer. An expansion of the logistics concept is called

supply-chain management: a process that coordinates the product, information, and cash
flows to maximize consumption satisfaction and minimize organization costs.

1.3.2 Vehicle Design and Transportation Services

Vehicle design and manufacture is a major industry in the United States and involves the
application of mechanical, electrical, and aerospace engineering skills as well as those of
technically trained mechanics and workers in other trades.
The service sector provides jobs for vehicle drivers, maintenance people, flight atten-
dants, train conductors, and other necessary support personnel. Other professionals, such
as lawyers, economists, social scientists, and ecologists, also work in the transportation
fields when their skills are required to draft legislation, to facilitate right-of-way acquisi-
tion, or to study and measure the impacts of transportation on the economy, ­society, and
the environment.

1.3.3 Transportation Infrastructure Services

Although a transportation system requires many skills and provides a wide variety
of job opportunities, the primary opportunities for civil engineers are in the area
of transportation infrastructure. A transportation engineer is the professional who

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Chapter 1 The Profession of Transportation 17

is concerned with the planning, design, construction, operations, and management

of a transportation system (Figure 1.6). Transportation professionals must make
critical decisions about the system that will affect the thousands of people who
use it. The work depends on the results of experience and research and is challeng-
ing and ever changing as new needs emerge and new technologies replace those of
the past. The challenge of the transportation engineering profession is to assist
­society in selecting the appropriate transportation system consistent with society’s
economic development, resources, and goals, and to construct and manage the sys-
tem in a safe and efficient manner. It is the engineer’s responsibility to ensure that
the system functions efficiently from an economic point of view, and that it meets
external requirements concerning energy, air quality, safety, congestion, noise, and
land use.

1.3.4 Specialties within Transportation

Infrastructure Engineering
Transportation engineers are typically employed by the agency responsible for build-
ing and maintaining a transportation system, including federal, state, or local govern-
ment, railroads, or transit authorities. They also work for consulting firms that help
carry out the planning and engineering tasks for these organizations. During the past
century, transportation engineers have been employed to build the nation’s railroads,
the interstate highway system, and rapid transit systems in major cities, airports, and
turnpikes. Each decade has seen a new national need for improved transportation
services.
In the twenty-first century, there will be increased emphasis on rehabilitating the
highway system, including its surfaces and bridges, as well as on devising a means to
ensure improved safety and utilization of the existing system through traffic control,
information technology, and systems management. Highway construction will be
required, particularly in suburban areas. Building of roads, highways, airports, and tran-
sit systems is likely to accelerate in less-developed countries, and the transportation engi-
neer will be called on to furnish the services necessary to plan, design, build, and operate
highway systems throughout the world. Each of the specialties within the transportation
infrastructure engineering field is described next.

Operations and Management

Design Construction
Planning • Traffic
• Geometric • Surface Preparation
• Data Analysis • Maintenance
• Pavement • Grading
• Forecasting • Intelligent Transportation
• Drainage • Pavement
• Evaluation • Surveillance
• Structural • Bridges
• Control

Experience
Research and Development • Field
• Technology Transfer • Analysis
• Projects

Figure 1.6 The Profession of Transportation Engineering

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 18 Part 1 Introduction

Transportation Planning
Transportation planning deals with the selection of projects for design and construc-
tion. The transportation planner begins by defining the problem, gathering and ana-
lyzing data, and evaluating various alternative solutions. Also involved in the process
are forecasts of future traffic; estimates of the impact of the facility on land use, the
environment, and the community; and determination of the benefits and costs that will
result if the project is built. The transportation planner investigates the physical fea-
sibility of a project and makes comparisons among various alternatives to determine
which one will accomplish the task at the lowest cost—consistent with other criteria
and constraints.
A transportation planner must be familiar with engineering economics and other
means of evaluating alternative systems; be knowledgeable in statistics and data-gathering
techniques, as well as in computer applications for data analysis and travel forecasting; and
be able to communicate with the public and policy makers.

Transportation Infrastructure Design

Transportation design involves the specification of all features of the transportation
system to assure that it will function smoothly, efficiently, and in accord with physical
laws of nature. The design process results in a set of detailed plans that can be used for
estimating the facility costs and for carrying out its construction. For highway design,
the process involves the selection of dimensions for all geometrical features, such as the
longitudinal profile, vertical curves and elevations, the highway cross section, pavement
widths, shoulders, rights-of-way, drainage ditches, and fencing. The design processes also
include the pavement and structural requirements for base courses and the concrete or
asphalt surface material. Highway design also includes bridges and drainage structures
as well as provision for traffic control devices, roadside rest areas, and landscaping. The
highway designer must be proficient in civil engineering subjects (such as soil mechanics,
hydraulics, land surveying, pavement design, and structural design) and is concerned pri-
marily with the geometric layout of the road, its cross section, paving materials, roadway
thickness, and traffic-control devices. Special appurtenances (such as highway bridges
and drainage structures) are usually designed by specialists in these areas.

Highway Construction
Highway construction involves all aspects of the building process, beginning with clear-
ing of the native soil, preparation of the surface, placement of the pavement material,
and preparation of the final roadway for use by traffic. Highways initially were built
with manual labor assisted by horse-drawn equipment for grading and moving m ­ aterials.
Today, modern construction equipment is used for clearing the site, grading the sub-
grade, compacting the pavement base courses, transporting materials, and placing the
final highway pavement. Advances in construction equipment have made the rapid
building of large highway sections possible. Nuclear devices test compaction of soil and
base courses, Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) are used to establish line and grade, and specialized equipment has been devel-
oped for handling concrete and bridge work. Large, automatically controlled mix plants
have been constructed, and new techniques for improving durability of structures and
for substituting of scarce materials have been developed.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
THE GODS AND MR. PERRIN
A Tragi-Comedy
 By Hugh Walpole

CONTENTS

THE GODS AND

MR. PERRIN
MR. VINCENT PERRIN DRINKS HIS TEA AND
CHAPTER I
GIVES MR. TRAILL SOUND ADVICE
INTRODUCES A CONFUSING COMPANY OF
CHAPTER II PERSONS, WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON MRS.
COMBER
CONCERNS ALL THE WONDERFUL THINGS
CHAPTER III THAT MAY HAPPEN BETWEEN SOUP AND
DESSERT
CHAPTER IV BIRKLAND LOQUITUR
A GAME OF FOOTBALL AND A DANCE IN
CHAPTER V PENDRAGON HAVE THEIR PART IN THE
SCHEME OF THINGS
CHAPTER VI SÆVA INDIGNATIO
THE BATTLE OP THE UMBRELLA; THEY OPEN
CHAPTER VII
FIRE
THE BATTLE OP THE UMBRELLA; CAMPS ARE
CHAPTER VIII
FORMED -- ALSO SOME SKIRMISHING
THE BATTLE OP THE UMBRELLA; WITH THE
CHAPTER IX
LADIES
THE BATTLE OF THE UMBRELLA; “WHOM THE
CHAPTER X
GODS WISH TO DESTROY....”
CHAPTER XI MR. PERRIN SEES DOUBLE
CHAPTER XII MR. PERRIN WALKS IN SLEEP
MR. PERRIN LISTENS WHILE THEY ALL MAKE
CHAPTER XIII
SPEECHES
MR. PERRIN REACHES THE HEART OF HIS
CHAPTER XIV
KINGDOM
CHAPTER XV THE GOLDEN VIEW

JOSEPH CONRAD
 By Hugh Walpole

CONTENTS

I BIOGRAPHY
II THE NOVELIST
III THE POET
IV ROMANCE AND REALISM

A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF JOSEPH CONRAD’S PRINCIPAL

WRITINGS

AMERICAN BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDEX OF THE
PROJECT GUTENBERG WORKS OF HUGH WALPOLE ***

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