Dual Nature of Light

Although electromagnetic waves exhibit many characteristics and properties of waves, they can
also exhibit some characteristics and properties of particles. We call these "particles" photons.
Because of this, we say that light (and all EM radiation) has a dual nature... at times it acts like a
wave, and at other times it acts like a particle.

Characteristics of light that indicate light behaves like a wave include:

 Refraction
 Diffraction
 Interference
 Doppler Effect
 Young's Double-Slit Experiment

Characteristics of light that indicate light also acts as a particle include Blackbody Radiation, the
Photoelectric Effect, and the Compton Effect.

Blackbody Radiation*

The radiation emitted from a very hot object (known as black-body radiation) didn't align with
physicists' understanding of light as a wave. Specifically, very hot objects emitted radiation in a
specific spectrum of frequencies and intensities, which varied with the temperature of the object.
Hotter objects had higher intensities at lower wavelengths (toward the blue/UV end of the
spectrum), and cooler objects emitted more intensity at higher wavelengths (toward the
red/infrared end of the spectrum). Physicists expected that at very short wavelengths the energy
radiated would become very large, in contrast to observed spectra. This problem was known as
the ultraviolet catastrophe.

German physicist Max Planck solved this puzzle by proposing that atoms could only absorb or
emit radiation in specific, non-continuous amounts, known as quanta. Energy, therefore, is
quantized - it only exists in specific discrete amounts. For his work, Planck was awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.
Photoelectric Effect
Further evidence that light behaves like a particle was proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905.
Scientists had observed that when EM radiation struck a piece of metal, electrons could be
emitted (known as photoelectrons). What was troubling was that not all EM radiation created
photoelectrons. Regardless of what intensity of light was incident upon the metal, the only
variable that effected the creation of photoelectrons was the frequency of the light.

If energy exists only in specific, discrete amounts, EM radiation exists in specific discrete
amounts, and we call these smallest possible "pieces" of EM radiation "photons." A photon has
zero mass and zero charge, and because it is a type of EM radiation, its velocity in a vacuum is
equal to c (3*108 m/s). The energy of each photon of light is therefore quantized, and is related
to its frequency by the equation:

In this equation, the value of h, known as Planck's Constant, is given as 6.63*10-34 J•s, and is
available from the Regents Physics Reference Table.

Einstein proposed that the electrons in the metal object were held in an "energy well," and had to
absorb at least enough energy to pull the electron out of the well in order to emit a photoelectron.
The electrons in the metal would not be released unless they absorbed a single photon with that
minimum amount of energy, known as the work function of the metal. Any excess absorbed
energy beyond that needed required to free the electron became kinetic energy for the
photoelectron.

The animation below demonstrates a high-energy photon of light being absorbed by an electron
in an atom. Because the photon has an energy greater than the energy holding the electron to its
nucleus, the electron absorbs the photon and is emitted as a photoelectron. The kinetic energy of
the emitted photoelectron is exactly equal to the amount of energy holding the electron to the
nucleus subtracted from the energy of the absorbed photon.

Courtesy Penn State Schuylkill

This theory extended Planck's work and inferred the particle-like behavior of photons of light.
Photoelectrons would be ejected from the metal only if they absorbed a photon of light with
frequency greater than or equal to a minimum threshold frequency, corresponding to the energy
of a photon equal to the metal's "electron well" energy for the most loosely held electrons.
Regardless of the intensity of the incident EM radiation, only EM radiation at or above the
threshold frequency could produce photoelectrons.

Compton Effect*
Einstein continued to extend his theories around the interaction of photons and atomic particles,
going so far as to hypothesize that photons could have momentum, also a particle property, even
though they had no mass.

In 1922, American physicist Arthur Compton shot an X-ray photon at a graphite target to
observe the collision between the photon and one of the graphite atom's electrons. Compton
observed that when the photon collided with an electron, a photoelectron was emitted, but the
original X-ray was also scattered and emitted, but with a longer wavelength (indicating it had
lost energy).

Courtesy Penn State Schuylkill

Further, the longer wavelength also indicated that the photon must have lost momentum. A
detailed analysis showed that the energy and momentum lost by the X-ray was exactly equal to
the energy and momentum gained by the photoelectron. Compton therefore concluded that not
only do photons have momentum, they also obey the laws of conservation of energy and
conservation of momentum!

In 1923, French physicist Louis De Broglie took Compton's finding one step further. He stated
that if EM waves can behave as moving particles, it would only make sense that a moving
particle should exhibit wave properties. De Broglie's hypothesis was confirmed by shooting
electrons through a double slit, similar to Young's Double Slit Experiment, and observing a
diffraction pattern. The wavelength of a moving particle, now known as the De Broglie

Wavelength, is given by: .

* Although Blackbody Radiation, the Compton Effect, and De Broglie Wavelengths are not
specifically included in the Regents Physics curriculum, they are included here briefly for
general knowledge and understanding.


 Kinematics
o Defining Motion
o Graphing Motion
o Kinematic Equations
o Free Fall
o Projectile Motion
o Kinematics Quiz
 Dynamics
o Newton's 1st Law
o Newton's 2nd Law
o Newton's 3rd Law
o Friction
 o Ramps and Inclines
o Dynamics Quiz
 Circular Motion & Gravity
o Uniform Circular Motion
o Gravity
o Circular Motion Quiz
 Momentum
o Impulse & Momentum
o Conservation Laws
o Types of Collisions
o Momentum Quiz
 Work, Energy & Power
o Work
o Power
o Energy
o Conservation Laws
o WEP Quiz
o Mechanics Review Quiz
 Electricity & Magnetism
o Electric Charges
o Electrostatics
o Electric Current
o Series Circuits
o Parallel Circuits
o Magnetism
o E&M Quiz
 Waves
o Wave Characteristics
o Wave Interference
o Wave Phenomena
o EM Spectrum
o Waves Quiz
 Modern Physics
o Wave-Particle Duality
o Models of the Atom
o M-E Equivalence
o The Standard Model
o Modern Physics Quiz
 Course Review Quiz

MODELS OF THE ATOM

Rutherford Model

Bohr Model
 Energy Level Diagrams

Atomic Spectra

Regents Physics - Models of the Atom

In the early 1900s, scientists around the world began to refine and revise our understanding of
atomic structure and sub-atomic particles. Scientists understood that matter was made up of
atoms, and J.J. Thompson had shown that atoms contained very small negative particles known
as electrons, but beyond that, the atom remained a mystery.

Rutherford Model
New Zealand scientist Ernest Rutherford devised an experiment to better understand the rest of
the atom. The experiment, known as Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment, involved shooting alpha
particles (helium nuclei) at a very thin sheet of gold foil, and observing the deflection of the
particles after passing through the gold foil. Rutherford found that although most of the particles
went through undeflected, a significant number of alpha particles were deflected by large
amounts. Using an analysis based around Coulomb's Law and the conservation of momentum,
Rutherford concluded that:
 1. Atoms have a small, massive, positive nucleus at the center.
2. Electrons must orbit the nucleus.
3. Most of the atom is made up of empty space.

Rutherford's model was incomplete, though, in that it didn't account for a number of effects
predicted by classical physics. Classical physics predicted that if the electron orbits the atom, it is
constantly accelerating, and should therefore emit photons of EM radiation. Because the atom
emits photons, it should be losing energy, therefore the orbit of the electron would quickly decay
into the nucleus and the atom would be unstable. Further, elements were found to emit and
absorb EM radiation only at specific frequencies, which did not correlate to Rutherford's theory.

Bohr Model
Following Rutherford's discovery, Danish physicist Niels Bohr traveled to England to join
Rutherford's research group and refine Rutherford's model of the atom. Instead of focusing on all
atoms, Bohr confined his research to developing a model of the simple hydrogen atom. Bohr's
model made the following assumptions:

1. Electrons don't lose energy as they accelerate around the nucleus. Instead, energy is
quantized... electrons can only exist at specific discrete energy levels.
2. Each atom allows only a limited number of specific orbits at each energy level.
3. To change energy levels, an electron must absorb or emit a photon of energy exactly
equal to the difference between the electron's initial and final energy levels:

Question: Calculate the energy of the emitted photon when an electron moves from an energy
level of -1.51 eV to -13.6 eV.

Answer:

Question: What is the emitted photon's wavelength?

Answer:

Bohr's Model, therefore, was able to explain the first two limitations of Rutherford's Model.
Further, Bohr was able to use his model to predict the frequencies of photons emitted and
absorbed by hydrogen, explaining Rutherford's problem of emission and absorption spectra! For
his work, Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922.

"If quantum mechanics hasn't profoundly shocked you, you haven't understood it yet." -- Niels
Bohr

Energy Level Diagrams

A useful tool for visualizing the allowed energy levels in an atom is the energy level diagram.
Two of these diagrams (one for hydrogen and one for mercury) are provided for you on your
reference table. In each of these diagrams, the n=1 energy state is the lowest possible energy for
an electron of that atom, known as the ground state. The energy corresponding to n=1 is shown
on the right side of the diagram in electron-volts. So, for hydrogen, the ground state is a level of -
13.6 eV.

The energy levels are negative to indicate that the electron is bound by the nucleus of the atom.
If the electron reaches 0 eV, it is no longer bound by the atom and can be emitted as a
photoelectron (i.e. the atom becomes ionized). Any remaining energy becomes the kinetic energy
of the photoelectron.
Question: An electron in a hydrogen atom drops from the n=3 to the n=2 state. Determine the
energy of the emitted radiation.
Answer:

Question: What is the wavelength of the emitted radiation?

Answer:

Atomic Spectra
Once you understand the energy level diagram, it quickly becomes obvious that atoms can only
emit certain frequencies of photons, correlating to the difference between energy levels as an
electron falls from a higher energy state to a lower energy state. In similar fashion, electrons can
only absorb photons with energy equal to the difference in energy levels as the electron jumps
from a lower to a higher energy state. This leads to unique atomic spectra of emitted radiation for
each element.

An object that is heated to the point where it glows (incandescence) emits a continuous energy
spectrum, described as blackbody radiation.
If a gas-discharge lamp is made from mercury vapor, the mercury vapor is made to emit light by
application of a high electrical potential. The light emitted by the mercury vapor is created by
electrons in higher energy states falling to lower energy states, therefore the photons emitted
correspond directly in wavelength to the difference in energy levels of the electrons. This creates
a unique spectrum of frequencies which can be observed by separating the colors using a prism,
known as an emission spectrum. By analyzing the emission spectra of various objects, scientists
can determine the composition of those objects.

In similar fashion, if light of all colors is shone through a cold gas, the gas will only absorb the
frequencies corresponding to photon energies exactly equal to the difference between the gas's
atomic energy levels. This creates a spectrum with all colors except those absorbed by the gas,
known as an absorption spectrum.

 Introduction
 Math Review
 Kinematics
o Defining Motion
o Graphing Motion
o Kinematic Equations
o Free Fall
o Projectile Motion
o Kinematics Quiz
 Dynamics
o Newton's 1st Law
o Newton's 2nd Law
o Newton's 3rd Law
o Friction
o Ramps and Inclines
o Dynamics Quiz
 Circular Motion & Gravity
o Uniform Circular Motion
o Gravity
o Circular Motion Quiz
 Momentum
o Impulse & Momentum
o Conservation Laws
o Types of Collisions
o Momentum Quiz
 Work, Energy & Power
o Work
o Power
o Energy
o Conservation Laws
o WEP Quiz
o Mechanics Review Quiz
 Electricity & Magnetism
 o Electric Charges
o Electrostatics
o Electric Current
o Series Circuits
o Parallel Circuits
o Magnetism
o E&M Quiz
 Waves
o Wave Characteristics
o Wave Interference
o Wave Phenomena
o EM Spectrum
o Waves Quiz
 Modern Physics
o Wave-Particle Duality
o Models of the Atom
o M-E Equivalence
o The Standard Model
o Modern Physics Quiz
 Course Review Quiz

MASS-ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

Conservation Laws

E=mc2

Binding Energy

Fission & Fusion

Regents Physics - Mass-Energy Equivalence

In 1905, in a paper titled "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content," Albert
Einstein proposed the revolutionary concept that an object's mass is a measure of how much
energy that object contains, opening a door to a host of world-changing developments,
eventually leading us to the major understanding that the source of all energy in the universe is,
ultimately, the conversion of mass into energy!

Conservation Laws
If mass is a measure of an object's energy, we need to re-evaluate our statements of the law of
conservation of mass and the law of conservation of energy. Up to this point, we have thought
of these as separate statements of fact in the universe. Based on Einstein's discovery, however,
mass and energy are two concepts effectively describing the same thing, therefore we could more
appropriately combine these two laws into a single law, the law of conservation of mass-
energy, which states that mass-energy cannot be created nor destroyed.

The concept of mass-energy is one that is often misunderstood and oftentimes argued in terms of
semantics... for example, a popular argument states that the concept of mass-energy equivalence
means that mass can be converted to energy, and energy can be converted to mass. Many would
disagree that this can occur, countering that since mass and energy are effectively the same thing,
you can't convert one to the other. For our purposes, we'll save these arguments for future
courses of study, and instead focus on a basic conceptual understanding.

The universal conservation laws we have studied so far this course include:

 Conservation of Mass-Energy
 Conservation of Charge
 Conservation of Momentum
E=mc2
Einstein's famous formula, E=mc2, relates the amount of energy contained in matter to the mass
times the speed of light in a vacuum (c=3*108 m/s) squared. Theoretically, then, we could
determine the amount of energy represented by 1 kilogram of matter as follows:

Question: What is the energy equivalent of 1 kilogram of matter?

Answer:

This is a very large amount of energy... to put it in perspective, the energy equivalent of a large
pickup truck is in the same order of magnitude of the total annual energy consumption of the
United States!

More practically, however, it is not realistic to convert large quantities of mass completely into
energy. Current practice revolves around converting small amounts of mass into energy in
nuclear processes. Typically these masses are so small that measuring in units of kilograms isn't
practical. Instead, scientists often work with the much smaller universal mass unit (u), which is
equal in mass to one-twelfth the mass of a single atom of Carbon-12. The mass of a proton and
neutron, therefore, is close to 1u, and the mass of an electron is close to 5*10-4 u. In precise
terms, 1u=1.66053886*10-27 kg.

One universal mass unit (1u) completely converted to energy is equivalent to 931 MeV. Because
mass and energy are different forms of the same thing, this could even be considered a unit
conversion problem. If given a mass in universal mass units, you can use this equivalence
directly from the front of the Regents Physics Reference Table to solve for the equivalent
amount of energy, without having to convert into standard units and utilize the E=mc2 equation.

Question: If a deuterium nucleus has a mass of 1.53*10-3 universal mass units (u) less than its
components, how much energy does its mass represent?

Answer:

Binding Energy

The nucleus of an atom consists of positively charged protons and neutral neutrons. Collectively,
these nuclear particles are known as nucleons. Protons repel each other electrically, so why
doesn't the nucleus fly apart? There is another force which holds nucleons together, known as the
strong nuclear force. This extremely strong force overcomes the electrical repulsion of the
protons, but it is only effective over very small distances.

Because nucleons are held together by the strong nuclear force, you must add energy to the
system to break apart the nucleus. The energy required to break apart the nucleus is known as the
binding energy of the nucleus.

If measured carefully, we find that the mass of a stable nucleus is actually slightly less than the
mass of its indivudal component nucleons. The difference in mass between the entire nucleus
and the sum of its component parts is known as the mass defect (Δm). The binding energy of the
nucleus, therefore, must be the energy equivalent of the mass defect due to the law of
conservation of mass-energy: .
Fission & Fusion
Fission is the process in which a nucleus splits into two or more nuclei. For heavy (larger) nuclei
such as Uranium-235, the mass of the original nucleus is greater than the sum of the mass of the
fission products. Where did this mass go? It is released as energy! A commonly used fission
reaction involves shooting a neutron at an atom of Uranium-235, which briefly becomes
Uranium-236, an unstable isotope. The Uranium-236 atom then fissions into a Barium-141 atom
and a Krypton-92 atom, releasing its excess energy while also sending out three more neutrons to
continue a chain reaction! This process is responsible for our nuclear power plants, and is also
the basis (in an uncontrolled reaction) of atomic fission bombs.

Fusion, on the other hand, is the process of combining two or more smaller nuclei into a larger
nucleus. If this occurs with small nuclei, the product of the reaction may have a smaller mass its
precursors, thereby releasing energy as part of the reaction. This is the basic nuclear reaction that
fuels our sun and the stars as hydrogen atoms combine to form helium. This is also the basis of
atomic hydrogen bombs.

Nuclear fusion holds tremendous potential as a clean source of power with widely available
source material (we can create hydrogen from water). The most promising fusion reaction for
controlled energy production fuses two isotopes of hydrogen known as deuterium and tritium to
form a helium nucleus and a neutron, as well as an extra neutron, while releasing a considerable
amount of energy. Currently, creating a sustainable, controlled fusion reaction that outputs more
energy than is required to start the reaction has not yet been demonstrated, but remains an area of
focus for scientists and engineers.

 Introduction
 Math Review
 Kinematics
o Defining Motion
o Graphing Motion
o Kinematic Equations
o Free Fall
o Projectile Motion
o Kinematics Quiz
 Dynamics
o Newton's 1st Law
o Newton's 2nd Law
o Newton's 3rd Law
o Friction
o Ramps and Inclines
o Dynamics Quiz
 Circular Motion & Gravity
o Uniform Circular Motion
o Gravity
o Circular Motion Quiz
 Momentum
o Impulse & Momentum
o Conservation Laws
o Types of Collisions
o Momentum Quiz
 Work, Energy & Power
o Work
o Power
o Energy
o Conservation Laws
o WEP Quiz
o Mechanics Review Quiz
 Electricity & Magnetism
o Electric Charges
o Electrostatics
o Electric Current
o Series Circuits
o Parallel Circuits
o Magnetism
o E&M Quiz
 Waves
 o Wave Characteristics
o Wave Interference
o Wave Phenomena
o EM Spectrum
o Waves Quiz
 Modern Physics
o Wave-Particle Duality
o Models of the Atom
o M-E Equivalence
o The Standard Model
o Modern Physics Quiz
 Course Review Quiz

THE STANDARD MODEL

Matter and Antimatter

Forces in the Universe

Classification of Matter

Quarks and Leptons

Regents Physics - The Standard Model

Matter and Antimatter

As we've learned previously, the atom is the smallest part of an element (such as oxygen) that
has the characteristics of the element. Atoms are made up of very small negatively charged
electrons surrounding, surrounding the much larger nucleus. The nucleus is composed of
positively charged protons and neutral neutrons. The positively charged protons exert a repelling
electrical force upon each other, but the strong nuclear force holds the protons and neutrons
together in the nucleus.

This completely summarized our understanding of atomic structure until the 1930s, when
scientists began to discover evidence that there was more to the picture, and that protons and
nucleons were made up of even smaller particles. This launched the particle physics movement,
which, to this day, continues to challenge our understanding of the entire universe by exploring
the structure of the atom.

In addition to matter we're familiar with, researchers have discovered the existence of
antimatter. Antimatter is matter made up of particles with the same mass as regular matter
particles, but opposite charges and other characteristics. An antiproton is a particle with the
same mass as a proton, but a negative (opposite) charge. A positron has the same mass as an
electron, but a positive charge. An antineutron has the same mass as a neutron, but has other
characteristics opposite that of the neutron.

When a matter particle and its corresponding antimatter particle meet, the particles may combine
to annihilate each other, resulting in the complete conversion of both particles into energy
consistent with the mass-energy equivalence equation: E=mc2.

Question: A proton and an antiproton collide and completely annihilate each other. How much
energy is released? (mproton=1.67*10-27kg)

Answer:

Forces in the Universe

We've dealt with many types of forces in this course, ranging from contact forces such as
tensions and normal forces to field forces such as the electrical force and gravitational force.
When observed from their most basic aspects, however, we can consolidate all observed forces
in the universe into the following four known fundamental forces. They are, from strongest to
weakest:

1. Strong Nuclear Force: holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus
 2. Electromagnetic Force: electrical and magnetic attraction and repulsion
3. Weak force: responsible for radioactive beta decay
4. Gravitational Force: attractive force between objects with mass

Understanding these forces remains a topic of scientific research, with current work exploring
the possibility that forces are actually conveyed by an exchange of force-carrying particles such
as photons, bosons, gluons, and gravitons.

Classification of Matter
The current model of sub-atomic structure used to understand matter is known as the Standard
Model. Development of this model began in the late 1960s, and has continued through today
with contributions from many scientists across the world. The Standard Model explains the
interactions of the strong (nuclear), electromagnetic, and weak forces, but has yet to account for
the gravitational force. The search for the theorized Higgs Boson at Fermilab and CERN is an
attempt to better unify and strengthen the Standard Model.

Although the Standard Model itself is a very complicated theory, the basic structure of the model
is fairly straightforward. According to the model, all matter is divided into two categories,
known as hadrons and the much smaller leptons. All of the fundamental forces act on hadrons,
which include particles such as protons and neutrons. In contrast, the strong nuclear forces
doesn't act on leptons, so only three fundamental forces act on leptons such as electrons,
positrons, muons, tau particles and neutrinos.

Hadrons are further divided into baryons and mesons. Baryons such as protons and neutrons are
composed of three smaller particles known as quarks. Charges of baryons are always whole
numbers. Mesons are composed of a quark and an anti-quark (for example, an up quark and an
anti-down quark).

Quarks and Leptons

Scientists have identified six types of quarks. For each of the six types of quarks, there also
exists a corresponding anti-quark with an opposite charge. The quarks have rather interesting
names: up quark, down quark, charm quark, strange quark, top quark, and bottom quark. Charges
on each quark are either one third of an elementary charge, or two third of an elementary charge,
positive or negative, and the quarks are symbolized by their first letter. For the associated anti-
quark, the symbol is the first letter of the anti-quark's name, with a line over the name. For
example, the symbol for the up quark is u. The symbol for the anti-up quark is .

Similarly, scientists have identified six types of leptons: the electron, the muon, the tau particle,
and the electron neutrino, muon neutrino, and tau neutrino. Again, for each of these leptons there
also exists an associated anti-lepton. The most familiar lepton, the electron, has a charge of -1e.
Its anti-particle, the positive, has a charge of +1e.

Since a proton is made up of three quarks, and has a positive charge, the sum of the charges on
its constituent quarks must be equal to one elementary charge. A proton is actually comprised of
two up quarks and one down quark. If we verify this by adding up the charges of the proton's

constituent quarks (uud):

Question: A neutron is composed of up and down quarks. How many of each type of quark are
needed to make a neutron?
Answer: The charge on the neutron must sum to zero, and the neutron is a baryon, so it is made
up of three quarks. To achieve a total charge of zero, the neutron must be made up of one up
quark (+2/3e) and two down quarks (-1/3e).

If the charge on a quark (such as the up quark) is +2/3e, the charge of the anti-quark ( ) is -2/3e.
The anti-quark is the same type of particle, with the same mass, but with the opposite charge.

Question: What is the charge of the down anti-quark ( )?

Answer: The down quark's charge is -1/3e, so the anti-down quark's charge must be +1/3e.

Question: Compared to the mass and charge of a proton, an antiproton has

1. the same mass and the same charge

2. greater mass and the same charge
3. the same mass and the opposite charge
4. greater mass and the opposite charge

Answer: (3) the same mass and the opposite charge