Engineering Materials and

Manufacturing Processes
Lesson 4B
WELDING
Joining is a term used for
welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding
these operations form a permanent joint
between the parts
a joint that cannot easily be separated.

The term assembly usually refers to mechanical methods

of fastening parts together.
Some of these methods allow for easy disassembly
while others do not.
WELDING
Welding is a materials joining process in which
parts are coalesced at their
contacting surfaces by
application of heat and/or pressure.
Many welding processes are accomplished by
heat alone, with no pressure applied
others are carried out using a combination of
heat and pressure
and some welding processes are accomplished by
pressure alone
with no external heat supplied.
WELDING
In some welding processes
a filler material is added to
facilitate coalescence.
The assemblage of parts that are joined by welding is
called a weldment.
Welding - commonly associated with metal parts
the process is also used for joining plastics.
Advantages of Welding
Welding provides a permanent joint.
welded parts become a single entity.
The welded joint can be stronger than the
parent materials
Welding is usually the most economical way to
join components
Alternative mechanical methods of assembly
require more complex shape alterations
The resulting mechanical assembly is usually
heavier than a corresponding weldment.
Welding is not restricted to the factory environment.
It can be accomplished ‘‘in the field.’’
Limitations of Welding
Most welding operations - expensive in terms of
labour cost.
Many welding operations are considered ‘‘skilled trades’’
labour to perform these operations may be scarce.
Most welding processes are inherently dangerous
they involve the use of high energy.
Welding does not allow for convenient disassembly.
The welded joint can suffer from certain defects that are
difficult to detect.
The defects can reduce the strength of the joint.
Welding -localized coalescence or joining together of
two metallic parts at their faying surfaces.
Faying surfaces are the part surfaces in contact or
close proximity that are to be joined.
Welding is usually performed on parts
made of the same metal
some welding operations can be used
to join dissimilar metals.
50 different types of welding operations
catalogued by the American Welding Society.
Welding processes - two major groups
(1) fusion welding and
(2) solid-state welding.
Fusion Welding
employs heat to melt the base metals.
In many fusion welding operations
a filler metal is added to the molten pool to
facilitate the process
A fusion-welding operation in which
no filler metal is added is referred to as an
autogenous weld.
Fusion welding
most common welding process
Fusion Welding
Classified further
Arc welding (AW)
welding processes in which heating of the metals is
accomplished by an electric arc
Some arc welding operations also apply pressure
during the process
and most utilize a filler metal.
Resistance welding (RW)
Resistance welding uses heat from
electrical resistance to the flow of a current passing
between the faying surfaces of
two parts held together under pressure.
Fusion Welding
Classified further
Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)
These processes use an oxyfuel gas, such as a
mixture of oxygen and acetylene
to produce a hot flame for melting
the base metal

The Arc Welding Process

Other fusion-welding processes
electron beam welding and laser beam welding

Solid-State Welding
joining processes in which coalescence results from
application of pressure alone or a combination of
heat and pressure.
If heat is used, the temperature is below
the melting point of the
metals being welded.
No filler metal is utilized.
Classification
Friction welding (FRW)
Coalescence is achieved by the heat of friction
between two surfaces.

Ultrasonic welding (USW)

Moderate pressure is applied between
the two parts and
an oscillating motion at ultrasonic frequencies is used
The combination of normal and vibratory forces
achieve atomic bonding of the surfaces.
Arc welding (AW)
heat is generated in electric arc between an
electrode and the work.

The same basic process is also used in arc cutting

To initiate the arc in an AW process, the electrode is
brought into contact with the work and then quickly
withdrawn by a short distance.
Arc welding (AW)

This produces temperatures of about 5500 °C

sufficient to melt any metal.
A pool of molten metal, is formed near the tip of
the electrode.
In most arc welding processes, filler metal is added
during the operation
Electrodes used in AW processes
classified as consumable or non-consumable.
Consumable electrodes provide the
source of the filler metal in arc welding.
These electrodes: rods (also called sticks)
rods must be changed periodically
reducing arc time
Wire electrode can be continuously fed
into the weld pool
from spools
avoiding the frequent interruptions that
occur when using welding sticks.
In both rod and wire forms, the electrode is
consumed by the arc as filler metal.
Non-consumable electrodes
made of tungsten (or carbon, rarely)
which resists melting by the arc
a non-consumable electrode is gradually depleted
Any filler metal used in the operation must be supplied by
means of a separate wire that is fed into the weld pool.
Arc Shielding
At the high temperatures in arc welding
the metals being joined are chemically reactive to
oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in the air.
The mechanical properties of the weld joint
can be seriously degraded by these reactions.
The arc is shielded from the air surrounding
by covering the electrode tip, arc, and
molten weld pool with
a blanket of gas or flux, or both
these check exposure of the weld metal to air.
Common shielding gases are
argon and helium
Arc Shielding
A flux is a substance used to prevent the
formation of oxides and
other unwanted contaminants, or to
dissolve them and facilitate removal.
During welding, the flux melts
and becomes a liquid slag
covering the operation and
protecting the molten weld metal.
The slag hardens upon cooling and must be removed
Fluxes serve several additional functions:
(1) provide a protective atmosphere for welding
(2) stabilize the arc
(3) reduce spattering.
Power Source in Arc Welding
Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC)
are used in arc welding.
AC machines are less expensive to purchase and
operate, but are
generally restricted to welding of ferrous metals.
DC equipment can be used on all metals
better arc control.
In all arc-welding processes, power for the
operation is given by the
product of the current I passing through
the arc and the voltage E across it.
Power Source in Arc Welding
This power is converted into heat, but
not all of the heat is transferred to the
surface of the work.
Convection, conduction, radiation, and spatter
account for losses
that reduce the amount of usable heat.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
uses a consumable electrode consisting of a
filler metal rod coated with chemicals
that provide flux and shielding.
The filler metal used in the rod must be compatible
with the metal to be welded
The coating consists of powdered cellulose
mixed with oxides, carbonates, and other ingredients
held together by a silicate binder.
Metal powders are also sometimes included in the
coating to
increase the amount of filler metal
and to add alloying elements.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
The heat of the welding process melts the coating to
provide a
protective atmosphere and slag for the
welding operation.
It also helps to stabilize the arc and regulate the
rate at which the electrode melts.
Shielded metal arc welding
Common applications
construction, pipelines, machinery structures,
shipbuilding, job shop fabrication, and repair work.
It is preferred over oxyfuel welding for
thicker sections—above 5 mm
because of its higher power density.
The equipment is portable and low cost,
SMAW highly versatile and probably the
most widely used of the AW processes.
Base metals include steels, stainless steels, cast irons,
and certain nonferrous alloys.
It is seldom used for aluminum and its alloys,
copper alloys, and titanium.
Shielded metal arc welding
A disadvantage of shielded metal arc welding
As the sticks are used up, the welding stick
must be periodically changed.
This reduces the arc time
Another limitation is
the current levels must be maintained within a
safe range or the coating will overheat and
melt prematurely
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
the electrode is a consumable bare metal wire
shielding is accomplished by flooding the arc
with a gas.
The bare wire is fed continuously and
automatically from a spool
through the welding gun
Gas Metal Arc Welding
GMAW uses continuous weld wire rather than
welding sticks
a significant advantage over SMAW in terms of
arc time
automation of arc welding is possible in GMAW.
the utilization of electrode material is
higher with GMAW.
Other features of GMAW include elimination of
slag removal (since no flux is used)
higher deposition rates than SMAW and
good versatility.
Gas Metal Arc Welding
GMAW
MIG welding (for metal inert gas welding).
same welding process was applied to steel
CO2 was used as a substitute for inert gas.
Hence the term CO2 welding
TIG Welding?
Flux-Cored Arc Welding
the electrode is a continuous consumable tubing
that contains flux and other ingredients in its core.
other ingredients may include deoxidizers and
alloying elements.
There are two versions of FCAW
(1) self-shielded and
(2) gas shielded.
In the first version of FCAW
arc shielding is provided by a flux core.
The core in this form of FCAW includes not only fluxes
but also ingredients that generate shielding gases for
protecting the arc.
Flux-Cored Arc Welding
The second version of FCAW, developed primarily for
welding steels
obtains arc shielding from externally supplied gases
This version is called
gas-shielded flux-cored arc welding.
it utilizes an electrode containing its own flux
together with
separate shielding gases
considered a hybrid of SMAW and GMAW.
Shielding gases typically employed are
carbon dioxide for mild steels or
mixtures of argon and carbon dioxide for
stainless steels.
Flux Cored Arc Welding
FCAW advantages
continuous feeding of the electrode.
It is used primarily for welding steels and
stainless steels over a wide stock thickness range.
It is noted for its capability to produce
very-high-quality weld joints that are
smooth and uniform.
Submerged-Arc Welding
consumable bare wire electrode
arc shielding provided by a cover of granular flux.
The flux is introduced into the joint slightly ahead of
the weld arc by gravity from a hopper
The blanket of granular flux completely submerges the
welding operation
preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation
The portion of the flux closest to the arc is melted,
mixing with the molten weld metal to remove
impurities and then solidifying on top of the
weld joint
to form a glass-like slag.
The slag and unfused flux granules on top provide
good protection from the
atmosphere and good thermal insulation for
the weld area
producing a high-quality weld joint
with good toughness and ductility.
Submerged Arc Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode
an inert gas for arc shielding.
also called as TIG welding (tungsten inert gas welding)
implemented with or without a filler metal.
Tungsten is a good electrode material
high melting point of 3410°C
Plasma Arc Welding
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a special form of
gas tungsten arc welding
a constricted plasma arc is directed at the weld area.
a tungsten electrode is contained in a
specially designed nozzle that
focuses a high-velocity stream of inert gas
into the region of the arc to form a
high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream
Plasma Arc Welding
Resistance Welding
Resistance welding (RW) is a group of fusion-welding
processes which
use a combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence
heat is generated by
electrical resistance to current flow at the
junction to be welded.
Resistance welding uses no shielding gases, flux, or
filler metal
the electrodes are non-consumable.
RW is classified as fusion welding
the applied heat almost always
causes melting of the faying surfaces.
Resistance Welding
Resistance Spot Welding
Variations of Resistance Welding
Resistance Seam Welding
Resistance Projection Welding
Flash Welding
High-Frequency Resistance Welding
High-Frequency Induction Welding
OXYACETYLENE WELDING
Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)
fusion-welding process
high-temperature flame from combustion of
acetylene with oxygen.
The flame is directed by a welding torch.
A filler metal is sometimes added, and
pressure is occasionally applied in OAW
between the contacting part surfaces.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Electron-beam welding (EBW)
fusion-welding process
the heat for welding is produced by a
highly focused, high-intensity stream of electrons
impinging against the work surface.
The electron beam gun operates at high voltage to
accelerate the electrons (e.g., 10–150 kV typical) and
beam currents are low (measured in milliamps).
The power in EBW is not exceptional, but
power density is very high
High power density is achieved by focusing the
electron beam
on a very small area of the work surface
Laser-beam welding (LBW)
fusion-welding process in which
coalescence is achieved by the energy of a
highly concentrated, coherent light beam
focused on the joint to be welded.
LASER is an acronym (expand)
LBW is normally performed with shielding gases

LBW produces welds of high quality

deep penetration, and
narrow heat-affected zone.
There are several advantages of LBW over EBW
no vacuum chamber is required
no X-rays are emitted, and laser beams
can be focused and
directed by optical lenses and mirrors.
LBW does not possess the capability
for the deep welds and
high depth-to-width ratios of EBW.
LBW is often used to join small parts.
Thermit Welding
A mixture of aluminium powder and iron oxide
produces an exothermic reaction when ignited.
This heat is utilised in welding.
Thermit welding (TW) is a fusion-welding process
in which
the heat for coalescence is produced by
superheated molten metal
from this chemical reaction.
Finely mixed powders of aluminium and
iron oxide (in a 1:3 mixture), when
ignited produce a temperature of around 1300 °C.
8Al + 3Fe3O4 → 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + heat
Thermit Welding
In Thermit welding, the superheated iron is
contained in a
crucible located above the joint to be welded
as shown in the figure below.
The reaction is complete in about 30 s, irrespective of
the amount of Thermit involved
the crucible is then tapped and the liquid metal
flows into a mould built
specially to surround the weld joint.
The entering metal is so hot,
it melts the edges of the base parts
causing coalescence upon solidification.
Thermit Welding
After cooling, the mould is broken away
and the gates and risers are
removed by oxyacetylene torch or
other method.
Thermit welding has applications in joining of
railroad rails and
repair of cracks in large steel castings and
forgings such as
ingot molds, large diameter shafts,
frames for machinery, and ship rudders.
The surface of the weld in these applications is often
sufficiently smooth so that no
subsequent finishing is required.
Thermit Welding
Friction Welding
Friction welding (FRW) is a solid-state welding process
in which coalescence is achieved by frictional heat
combined with pressure.
The friction is induced by mechanical rubbing
between the two surfaces
usually by rotation of one part relative to the other
to raise the temperature at the joint interface
to the hot working range for the metals involved.
Then the parts are driven toward each other with
sufficient force to form a
metallurgical bond.
No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases are normally used.
Friction Welding
Friction stir welding (FSW)
is a solid state welding process in which
a rotating tool is fed along the
joint line between two work pieces
generating friction heat and mechanically stirring the
metal to form the weld seam.
FSW is distinguished from conventional FRW by
the fact that friction heat is generated by
a separate wear-resistant tool rather than by
the parts themselves
The rotating tool is stepped, consisting of a
cylindrical shoulder and a smaller probe
projecting beneath it.
Friction stir welding (FSW)
During welding, the shoulder rubs against the
top surfaces of the two parts
developing much of the friction heat, while
the probe generates additional heat
by mechanically mixing the metal along
the butt surfaces.
The probe has a geometry
designed to facilitate the mixing action.
The heat produced by the combination of friction
and mixing does not melt the metal but
softens it to a highly plastic condition.
Friction Stir Welding
Ultrasonic welding (USW)
is a solid-state welding process in which
two components are held together under
modest clamping force
and oscillatory shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency
are applied to the
interface to cause coalescence.
The oscillatory motion between the two parts
breaks down any surface films to allow
intimate contact and strong metallurgical
bonding between the surfaces.
Ultrasonic welding (USW)
heating of the contacting surfaces occurs due to
interfacial rubbing and plastic deformation
the resulting temperatures are well below
the melting point.
No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases are
required in USW.

USW operations are generally limited to lap joints on

soft materials such as aluminum and copper.
Welding harder materials causes rapid wear of
the sonotrode
contacting the upper work part.
Ultrasonic welding (USW)
Work parts should be relatively small,
Applications include wire terminations and splicing in
electrical and electronics industries
assembly of aluminium sheet-metal panels
welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels
and other tasks in small parts assembly
Ultrasonic Welding
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