Introduction to Compiler:

A compiler is a translator that converts the high-level language into the machine
language.
o High-level language is written by a developer and machine language can be understood
by the processor.
o Compiler is used to show errors to the programmer.

The main purpose of compiler is to change the code written in one language without
changing the meaning of the program.
When you execute a program which is written in HLL programming language then it
executes into two parts.
In the first part, the source program compiled and translated into the object program (low
level language).
In the second part, object program translated into the target program through the
assembler.

Source Program Object Program

Compiler

Object Program Target Program

Assembler

Structure of a Compiler:
The compilation process contains the sequence of various phases. Each phase takes source
program in one representation ánd produces output in another representation. Each phase takes
input from itsprevious stage.
There are the various plhases of compiler:
 Intermediate
I nt h ei n t e r r

c o d e .I n t e r

Theinte

lexical analyzer targetr

Co

syntax analyzer

symbol semantic analyzer

error
table
manager intermediate code handler
generator

code optimizer

code generator

Lexical Analysis:
Lexical analyzer phase is the first phase of compilation process. It takes
reads the source program one character at a time and converts it into source code as input. It
meaningful lexemes.
Lexical analyzer represents these lexemes in the form of tokens.
Syntax Analysis
Syntax analysis is the second phase of compilation process. It takes tokens as input and generates
a parse tree as output. In syntax analysis phase, the parser checks that the expression made by the
tokens is syntactically correct or not.

Semantic Analysis
Semantic analysis is the third phase of compilation process. It checks whether the parse tree
follows the rules of language. Semantic analyzer keeps track of identifiers, their types and
expressions. The output of semantic analysis phase is the annotated tree syntax.
 3

Intermediate Code Generation

In the intermediate code generation, compiler generates the source code into the intermediate
code. Intermediate code is generated between the high-level language and the machine language.
it into the
The intermediate code should be generated in such a way that you can easily translate
target machine code.

Code Optimization
the intermediate code sothat the
Code optimization is an optional phase. It is used to improve removes the unnecessary lines of
output of the program could run faster and take less space. It
the program execution.
the code and arranges the sequence of statements in order to speed up

Code Generation
Code generation is the final stage of the compilation process.
It takes the optimized intermediate
language. Code generator translates the
code as input and maps it to the target machine
intermediate code into the machine code of the specified computer.

Example:
Sum*= Old sumn+ Rate k S0

Lexlcat Analyzer

id1 = id2 + id3 * id4

Syntax anayzer

id 1

Id2

id4

Semantic analyzer

id1

inttorea!

Intermediate code generator

inttoreal(50O)

temp1:temp1
temp2:
temp
= 0d2*temp2
id1: temp3

Code optimtzation

temp1: = a 3 * S0.0
jd1: + temp1

C o d e generation

MOVF id3,R2
MULF #50.0, R2
MO
oOE R2.R1
MOVF RI,Idi
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Symbol Table:
Symbol table is an important data structure used in a compiler. Symbol table is Used to
IMformation about the occurrence of various entities such as objects, classes, variablestore the
name,
Interface, function name etc, it is used by both the analysis and synthesis phases.
The symbol table used for
following purposes:
o 1t is used to store the name of all entities
ina structured form at one place.
o It is'used to verify if a
variable has been declared.
It is used todetermine the scope of a name.
It is used to implement type checking by verifying
Source code are semantically correct.
assignments and expressions in the
A symbol table can either be linear or a
entry for each name. hash table. Using the following format, it
maintains the
<symbol name, type, attribute>
Implementation
The symbol table can be implemented in
Small amount of data.
the unordered list if the compiler is used to
handle the
A symbol table can be implemented in one
of the following techniques:
Linear (sorted or unsorted) list
Hash table
o Binary search tree

Symbol table are mostly implemented as hash table.

Example:
int count;

char x[]="hai vbit

float b=20.5
Name Type Size Dimension Line of Line of Address
Declaration Usage
Count int 2 0
Char
B Float 4

Operations

The symbol table provides the following operations:

Insert )

Insert () operation is more frequently used in the analysis phase when the tokens are
identified and names are stored in the table.
The insert)operation is used to insert the information in the symbol table like the unique
name occurring in the source code.
In the source code, the attribute for a symbol is the information associated with that
symbol. The information contains the state, value, type and scope about the symbol.
The insert () function takes the symbol and its value in the form of argument.

For exanple:
int x;

Should be processed by the compiler as:

insert (x, int)

lookup)
In the symboltable, lookup() operation is used to search a name. It is used to determine:

o The existence of symbol in the table.

The declaration of the symbol before it is used.
Check whether the name is used in the scope.
o Initialization of the symbol.
Checking whether the name is declared multiple times.
The basic format of lookup() function is as follows:
lookup (symbol)
This format is varies according to the programming language.
Lexical Analyzer:
The Role of Lexical Analyzer
Lexical analysis is the starting phase of the compiler. It gathers
written in the form of sentences from the language preprocessor.modified
The
source code that is
responsible for breaking these syntaxes into a series of tokens, by lexical analyzer is
SOurce code. If the lexical analyzer gets any invalid token, it removing whitespace in the
generates
character is'read by it and it seeks the legal tokens, and then the an error. The stream of
analyzer, when it is asked for. data is passed to the syntax

Terminologies
There are three terminologies
Token
Pattern
Lexeme
Token: It is a sequence of characters that
represents a unit of information in the source
code.
Pattern: The description used by the token is
known as a pattern.
Lexeme: A sequence of characters in the
known as lexeme. It is also called the source code, as per the matching pattern of a token, is
instance of a token.
The Architecture of Lexical
Analyzer
To read the input character in the
source
lexical analyzer. The lexical analyzer goescode and produce a token is the most important task of a
each token one by one. The scanner is through with the entire source code and
responsible to produce tokens when it is
identifies
parser. The lexical analyzer avoids the requested by the
any error occurs, the analyzer correlateswhitespace and comments while creating these tokens. li
these errors with the source file and line
number.
 DBYJU'S
Tho Loaning App

Tokens

Lexemes Lexical Syntax

analyzer analyzer

Source-code
Request for
tokens

Roles and Responsibility of Lexical Analyzer

The lexical analyzer performs the following tasks
The lexical analyzer is responsible for removing the white spaces and comments from the source
program.

It corresponds to the error messages with the source program.

It helps to identify the tokens.
The input characters are read by the lexical analyzer from the source code.
BBYJU'S
The Losning Aps

Lexical Token Rest of compiler

Source Parser
program analyzer
Get next
(1) token

Symbol
table

Advantages of Lexical Analysis

Lexical analysis helps the browsers to format and display aweb page with the help of parsed
data,

Itis responsible to create acompiled binary executable code.

It helps to create amore efficient and specialized processor for the task.
 bufft

two
poin

consists
SufferPairs o

Lexeme
f

two
Begin
d
a r e

Disadvantages of Lexical Analysis It ThereForward

scan

It requires additional runtime overhead to generate the When

a le

lexer table and construct the tokene newly

d

It requires much effort to debug and develop the lexer and

its token description. The

Much significant time is required to read the source

code and partition it into tokens.
Lexeme Se

A lexeme is a sequence of characters

in the source program that fits the
recognized as an instance of that token by the pattern for a token and is
lexical analyzer.
Token
A Token is a pair that consists of a
The token name is a symbol that token name and a value for an optional attribute.
Pattern denotes the type of lexical unit.
A pattern is a description of the
keyword as a token is just a seriesvarious forms that a token's lexemes can take.
of characters that make up the The pattern for a
term..
What is Input Buffering?
One or more characters beyond
correct lexeme is identified. the following lexeme must be searched up to guarantee
As a result, a two-buffer that the
system is
Using sentinels to mark the buffer used to safely manage huge
lexical analyzer process. end has been embraced as a lookaheads.
technique for speeding up the
Three general techniques for
With the help of a implementing a lexical analyzer
lexical-analyzer generator, you can: The generator does
methods for reading and buffering the
By building the lexical analyzer input. this by providing
the input with that language's in a traditional systems programming language
I/Otools. and reading
Programming the lexical analyzer in assembly
reading. language and explicitly controlling the input
Buffer Pairs
Specialized buffering techniques decrease the
overhead required to process an input
moving characters. character in

M
2 ecf

Lexeme Design Forward

 9

Buffer Pairs
t consists oftwo buffers, each of which has an N-character size and is alternately reloaded.
There are two pointers: lexeme Begin and forward.
Lexeme Begin denotes the start of the current lexeme, which has yet to be discovered.
Forward scans until it finds a match fora pattern.
When a lexeme is discovered, lexeme begin is set to the character immediately after the
newly discovered lexeme, and forward is set to the character at the right end of the lexeme.
The collection of characters between two points is the current lexeme.
Sentinels
Sentinels are used to performing a check each time the forward pointer is shifted to guarantee
that one-half of the buffers have not gone off. If it's finished, the other half will need to be
reloaded.
buffer
As a result, each advance of the forward pointer necessitates two checks at the ends of the
halves.
Test 1: Check for the buffer's end.
Test 2:To figure out which character is being read.
By expanding each buffer in half to store a sentinel character at the end, sentinel reduces the two
checks to one.
The sentinel is a unique character that isn't included in the source code. (The charactèr of serves
as a sentinel.)

Specification and Recognition of Tokens:

A token is the smallest individual element of a program that is meaningful to the compiler. It
cannot be further broken down. Identifiers, strings, keywords, et., can be the example of the
token. In the lexical analysis phase of the compiler, the program is converted into a stream of
tokens.

Different Types of Tokens

There can be multiple types of tokens. Some of them are
Keywords
Keywords are words reserved for particular purposes and imply a special meaning to the
compilers. The keywords must not be used for naming a variable, function, etc.
Identifier
The names given to various components in the program, like the function's name or variable's
name, etc., are called identifiers. Keywords cannot be identifiers.
Operators
Operators are different symbols used to perform different operations in a programming language.
Punctuations
The Punctuations are special symbols that separate different code elements in aprogramming
language.
Consider the following line of code in Ctt language -
int x =45:
 Auxiliary
routin

Thissection
tokens, which are
The above statement has multiple
Writte
inn

Keywords: int
Identifier: x,45
Operators: =
Punctuators: ;

The Lexical-Analyzer Generator Lex:

LEX is atool that generates a lexical analyzer program for a given input string. It processes the
given input string/ile and transforms them into tokens. It is used by YACC programs to generate
complete parsers.
There are many versions available for LEX, but the most popular is flex which is readily
available on Linux systems as a part of the GNUcompiler package.
Parts of the-LEX program
The layout of a LEX source program is:
" Definitions
C Rules
Auxiliary routines
A double modulus sign separates each section
%%
Definitions
The definitions are at the top of the LEX source
file. It includes the regular definitions, the C,
directives, and any global variable declarations. The code
specific to C is placed within
%{ and %}
For example:
%{
#include <stdio.h>
int globalVariable = 0;
%}
Rules
This section may contain multiple
rules. Each rule consists of:
Aregular expression
(name)
Apiece of code (output
action)
They execute whenever a token in the
input stream matches with the grammar.
 Auxiliary routines
Here, a function is
This section includes functions that may be required in the rules section.
the main() function.
written in regular C syntax. Most simple lexical analyzers only require
code is placed into a function
The yytext keyword gives the current lexeme. The generated
called yylex(). The main() function always calls the yylex) function.
Example
every decimal number in a given input to
The given code is a LEX program that converts
hexadecimal. The .l extension file contains the LEX program.

hexadecimal conversion */
/* Lex program for decimal to
%{
/* Definition section */
#include<stdio.h>

pcount-0, i;
int num, I, digit-0, count,
char a[20];
%}
DIGIT [0-9]
/* Rule Section */

%%
{DIGIT}+ { num=atoi(yytext);

while(num!-0)

Fnum%16;

digit-0'+r;
if(digit>'9)

digitt-7;
a[count+-+]-digit;

num-num/16:
 1

Featureo
s fsyv

for(i=count-1;-pcount;-i)
printf("%c", alil): Syntax
T

the
cod

pcount-count; inclu

Jn ECHO;
%%

Syntax Analyzer:
Introduction:
Syntax Analysis or Parsing is the second phase, i.e. after lexical analysis. It checks the
syntactical structure of the given input, i.e. whether the given input is in the correct syntax (of the
language in which the input has been written) or not. It does so by building a data structure,
called a Parse tree or Syntax tree. The parse tree is constructed by using the
pre-defined
Grammar of the language and the input string. If the given input string can be produced with
help of the syntax tree (in the derivation process), the input string is found to the
be in the correct
syntax. if not, the error is reported by the syntax analyzer.
Syntax analysis, also known as parsing, is a process in compiler design where the
checks if the source code follows the grammatical rules of the compiler
progranmming
typically the second stage of the compilation process, following lexical language. This is
analysis.
The main goal of syntax analysis is to create a parse tree or
abstract syntaxX tree (AST) of the
source code, which is a hierarchical representation of the source code
that reflects the
grammatical structure of the program.
There are several types of parsing algorithms used in syntax analysis,
including:
LL parsing: This is a top-down parsing algorithm that starts with the root of the parse tree
and constructs the tree by successively expanding non-terminals. LL parsing is known for
its simplicity and ease of implementation.
LR parsing: This is a bottom-up parsing algorithm that starts with the leaves of the parse
tree and constructs the tree by successively reducing terminals. LR parsing is more
powerful than LL parsing and can handle a larger class of grammars.
LR(1) parsing: This is a variant of LR parsing that uses lookahead to disambiguate the
grammar.
LALR parsing: This is a variant of LR parsing that uses areduced set of lookahead
symbols to reduce the number of states in the LR parser.
Once the parse tree is constructed, the compiler can perform semantic analysis to check if
the source code makes sense and follows the semantics of the programming language.
The parse tree or AST can also be used in the code generation phase of the compiler design
to generate intermediate code or machine code.
 13

Features of syntax analysis:

Syntax Trees: Syntax analysis creates a syntax tree, which is a hierarchical representation of
the code's structure. The tree shows the relationship between the various parts of the code,
including statements, expressions, and operators.

Context-Free Grammar: Syntax analysis uses context-free grammar to define the syntax of
the progranmming language. Context-free grammar is a formal language used todescribe the
structure of programming languages.
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Parsing: Syntax analysis can be performed using two main
approaches: top-down parsing and bottom-up parsing. Top-down parsing starts from the
highest level of the syntax tree and works its way down, while bottom-up parsing starts from
the lowest level and works its way up.

Error Detection: Syntax analysis is responsible for detecting syntax errors in the code. If the
code does not conform to the rules of the programming language, the parser will report an error
and halt the compilation process.

Intermediate Code Generation: Syntax analysis generates an intermediate represèntation of

the code, which is used by the subsequent phases of the compiler. The intermediate
representation is usuallya more abstract form of the code, which is easier towork with than
the original source code.

Optimization: Syntax analysis can perform basic optimizations on the code, such as removing
redundant code and simplifying expressions.
The pushdown automata (PDA) is used to design the syntax analysis phase.
The Grammar for a Language consists of Production rules.
Example: Suppose Production rules for the Grammar of a language are:
S-> CAd
A -> bcla
And the input string is "cad".
Now the parser attempts to construct a syntax tree from this grammar for the given' input string.
It uses the given production rules and applies those as needed to generate the string. To
 Limits
inth

generate string "cad" it uses the rules as shown in the given diagram:

A C A d A

b C

i)
i) ii) backtrack iv)
needed

In step (ii) above, the production rule A->bc was not a

string produced is "cbcd" not "cad"), here the parser needssuitable one to apply (because the
to backtrack, and apply the next
production rule available with Awhich is shown in step (iv), and the string "cad"
is produced.

Advantages :
Advantages of using syntax analysis in compiler design include:
Structural validation: Syntax analysis allows the
follows the grammatical rules of the programmingcompiler to check if the source code
language, which helps to detect and
report errors in the source code.
Improved code generation: Syntax analysis can generate a parse tree
(AST) of the source code, which can be used in the code or abstract syntax tree
design to generate more efficient and optimized code. generation phase of the compiler
Easier semantic analysis: Once the parse tree or AST is
perform semantic analysis more easily, as it can rely on constructed,
the
the compiler can
structural
by the parse tree or AST. information provided

Disadvantages:
Disadvantages of using syntax analysis in compiler design include:
Complexity: Parsing is a complex process, and the
the performance of the resulting code. Implementingquality of the parser can greatly impact
a parser for a complex programming
language can be a challenging task, especially for languages with ambiguous
grammars.
Reduced performance: Syntax analysis can add overhead to the compilation process,
can reduce the performance of the compiler. which
 from errors
Limited error recovery: Syntax analysis algorithms may not be able to recover
trees and make it
in the source code, which can lead to incomplete or incorrect parse
difcult for the compiler to continue the compilation process.
Inability to handle all languages: Not all languages have formal grammars, and some
languages may not be easily parseable.
should
Overall, syntax analysis is an important stage in the compiler design process, but it
be balanced against the goals.

Context Free Grammars:

ACFG is denoted as G= (N, T, P, S)
N: Finite set of non-terminals
T: Finite set of terminals
SEN: The start symbol
P:Finite set of productions,
each of theform A’04,
where AEN and a E (NUT)
corresponds to that of the start symbol
*Usually, only P is specified and the first production
Examples 4)S-> aB|bA
1) E->E+E 2) S->0S0 3) S->aSb
S->1S1 S->¬ A-> a aS] bAA
E->E*E
S->0 B-> b|bSlaBB
E->(E)
B->id S->1
S->¬
 W h a t
i sT o

Top-Dow
tree,
mc

Parsers: parsin
pars
Parsing, also known as syntactic analysis, is the process of analyzing a
determine the grammatical structure of a program, sequence of tokens to
It takes the stream of tokens, which are
generated by a lexical analyzer or tokenizer, and organizes them
tree. into a parse tree Or syntax
Ine parse tree visually represents how the tokens fit
together according to the rules of the
languagessyntax. This tree structure is crucial for understanding
nelps in the next stages of processing, such as code the program's structure and
parsing ensures that the sequence of tokens follows generation or execution. Additionally,
the
language, making the program valid and ready for further syntactic rules of the programming
analysis or execution.
tokens

grammar parser
generator parser

code Intermediate
Reprsentation
What is the Role of Parser?
A parser performs syntactic and
semantic analysis of source code, converting it
intermediate representation while detecting and handling errors. into an
1. Context-free syntax analysis:
The parser checks if the structure of the
basic rules of the programming language code follows the
symbols are arranged. (like grammar rules). It looks at how words and
2. Guides context-sensitive analysis:
It helps with deeper checks that depend
of the code, like making sure variables
are on the meaning
variable used in a mathematical used correctly. For example, it ensures that a
3. Constructs an intermediate operation, like x+2, is a number and not text.
representation: The parser creates a simpler version of your
code that'seasier for the computer to understand and work with.
4. Produces meaningful error
messages:
tries to explain the problem clearly so youIf there's something wrong in your code, the parser
5. Attempts error correction: can fix it.
Sometimes,
so it can keep working without breaking the parser tries to fix small mistakes in your
code
Types of Parsing completely.
The parsing isdivided into two types, hich are
as follows:
Top-down Parsing
Bottom-up Parsing
Top-Down Parsing and Bottom-Up Parsing are used for parsing a
of the tree. Both the parsing techniques are different from each tree to reach the starting node
between the two is that top-down parsing starts from top of the other.
parse
The most basic difference
parsing starts from the lowest level of the tree, while bottom-up
parse tree.
 Parsing?
What is Top-Down
Ton-Down Parsing technique is a parsing technique which starts from the top level of the parse
ree. move downwards, evaluates rules of grammar. In other words, top-down parsing is a
narsing technique that looks at the highest level of the tree at start and then moves down to the
parse tree.

The top-down parsing technique tries to identify the leftmost derivation for an input. It evaluates
the rules of grammar while parsing. Consequently, each terminal symbol in the top-down parsing
is produced by multiple production of grammar rules.

Since top-down parsing uses leftmost derivation, hence in this parsing technique, the leftmost
decision selects what production rule is used to construct the string.

What is Bottom-Up Parsing? of

Bottom-UpParsing technique is again a parsing technique which starts from
the lowest level
Therefore, the bottomup
the parse tree, move upwards and evaluates the rules of grammar.
symbol of the
parsing technique makes an attempt to decrease the input string to the start
grammar.

node (bottom node) of the parse

In bottom-up parsing, the parsing of a tree starts from the leaf it works in a bottom-up manner so
tree and works towards the start node of the parse tree. Hence,
its named.

derivation. The main rightmost

The bottom-up parsing technique makes use of right1most the string to get the starting symbol
decision is to select when a production rule is used to reduce
of the parsing tree.
and bottom-up parsing in detail.
Now, let us discuss the differences between top-down parsing
skills at your own pace. Enroll and become a
Explore our latest online courses and learn new
certified expert to boost your career.
Parsing
Difference between Top-Down Parsing and Bottom-Up BottomUp
differences between TopDown Parsing and
The following are some of the important
Parsing ?
Key Top Down Pars1ng Bottom Up Parsing
Top-down approach starts Bottom-up approach starts
evaluating the parse tree evaluating the parse tree from
the lowest level of the tree
Strategy from the top and move
downwards for parsing other and move upwards for parsing
nodes. the node.

Top-down parsing attempts Bottom-up parsing attempts to

to find the left most reduce the input string to first
Attempt
derivation for a given string. symbol of the grammar.
 Consale

Derivation Top-down parsing uses Bottom-up parsing uses the

Type leftmost derivation. rightmost derivation.

Objective Top-down parsing searches Bottom-up parsing searches

for a production rule to be for a production rule to be
used to construct a string. used to reduce a string to get a
starting symbol of grammar.
Conclusion
Ihe most significant difference that yOu should note
derivation, while bottom-up parsing uses the here is that top-down parsing uses leftmost
rightmost derivation.

Parsers

TOP DOWN PARSERS

(TDP) BOTTOMUP PARSERS
(BUP)

TDP with full TOP without

backtacting Operator LR parser
backtracking Precedence
S parser

LR(0)
Bruteforce Recursive descent
method SLR(L)
parser
LALR(1)
Non-recursive CLR(1)
descent parser (LL(1})

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