1

Unit 1: Introduction
1.1 Assessment, Evaluation, and Test
1.2 Assessment: A continuous, systematic process of gathering information to monitor and
improve student progress and instructional strategies. It aims to understand how well
students are achieving the learning goals.
Purpose: Provides feedback for improving learning and teaching.
Methods: Quizzes, assignments, projects, observations, and discussions.
Evaluation: The judgmental process that uses the data collected through assessments to make
decisions about a student’s performance, the effectiveness of instructional methods, or the
quality of a program.
Purpose: Helps in making decisions like grading, promotion, and improving curriculum.
Test: A formal and structured method of gathering specific data about students’ learning. It is
often a standardized instrument used for assessment.
Example: Multiple-choice tests, essays, practical exams.
1.3 The Purpose of Testing
1. Diagnosis: Identifying specific strengths and weaknesses in students’ learning to inform
future instruction. For example, a pre-test before beginning a unit helps in diagnosing
students’ prior knowledge.
2. Placement: Tests are used to place students in appropriate levels or groups based on their
abilities. Example: Students may be placed in remedial classes based on test results.
3. Instructional Feedback: Tests provide teachers with feedback on how effective their
teaching methods are. The results can highlight areas where students need more
attention.
4. Certification: Tests often serve to certify that a student has met certain academic or
professional standards. Example: Graduation exams, professional qualification tests.
5. Accountability: Ensures that schools, teachers, and students meet predefined standards or
benchmarks, promoting transparency and continuous improvement.
1.3 General Principles of Evaluation
1. Validity: Ensures that the test measures what it is intended to measure. For instance, a
math test should assess mathematical understanding, not reading comprehension.
Types: Content validity, Construct validity, Criterion-related validity.
2. Reliability: The degree to which a test produces consistent results over time or across
different raters. A reliable test will yield the same results if administered multiple times.
Example: Test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability.
3. Objectivity: The degree to which a test is free from personal bias or subjective influence.
This is especially important in essay-based assessments where grading can vary widely
between examiners.
Example: Rubrics and standardized answer keys help in ensuring objectivity.
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4. Comprehensiveness: A good test should adequately cover the learning content and
objectives. It should assess the knowledge and skills that have been taught.
Example: A history test should include questions from all historical periods studied, not just one
chapter.
5. Practicality: A test should be feasible to administer, score, and interpret within the
constraints of time, resources, and cost.
Example: Multiple-choice tests are more practical than essay exams for large groups of
students.
1.4 Types of Evaluation
1. Formative Evaluation: This is conducted during the learning process and is used to
monitor students’ progress and guide future instruction. It provides ongoing feedback.
Example: Quizzes, assignments, class discussions.
2. Summative Evaluation: This occurs at the end of an instructional period and is used to
evaluate students’ overall performance. It is often used for grading.
Example: Final exams, end-of-term projects.
3. Diagnostic Evaluation: Used before or at the beginning of instruction to identify learners’
existing knowledge, strengths, and weaknesses. It helps to target specific areas for
improvement.
Example: Pre-tests before a unit begins.
4. Placement Evaluation: This determines the level or type of instruction a student should
receive. It is used to place students in appropriate courses or groups based on their skill
levels.
Example: Placement tests for advanced or remedial classes.
1.5 Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests
Norm-Referenced Test (NRT): A test that compares a student’s performance with the
performance of others. The results are used to rank students.
Purpose: To determine relative standing among students.
Example: SAT, IQ tests.
Characteristic: Scores are typically presented as percentiles (e.g., 85 th percentile means the
student scored better than 85% of others).
Criterion-Referenced Test (CRT): A test that compares a student’s performance against a
predefined standard or set of learning objectives, not other students.
Purpose: To determine whether students have achieved specific learning goals.
Example: A driving test, certification exams.
Characteristic: Performance is measured against a fixed standard, not relative to others.
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Unit 2: Assessment and Learning Objectives

2.1 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Definition: A framework for categorizing and organizing educational goals into different domains
to enhance teaching and learning.
Domains of Educational Objectives:
1. Cognitive Domain (Bloom’s Taxonomy): Focuses on intellectual and thinking skills.
Original Levels (1956):
1. Knowledge: Recall of facts and basic concepts. (e.g., Define, List)
2. Comprehension: Understanding the meaning of information. (e.g., Explain, Summarize)
3. Application: Using knowledge in new situations. (e.g., Solve, Demonstrate)
4. Analysis: Breaking information into parts to explore relationships. (e.g., Compare,
Examine)
5. Synthesis: Combining elements to form new ideas. (e.g., Design, Create)
6. Evaluation: Making judgments based on criteria. (e.g., Assess, Critique)
Revised Levels (2001):
1. Remembering: Recall of information.
2. Understanding: Explain concepts and ideas.
3. Applying: Use information in different contexts.
4. Analyzing: Differentiate between components.
5. Evaluating: Judge based on evidence or standards.
6. Creating: Produce new work or ideas.
2. Affective Domain: Focuses on attitudes, emotions, and values.
Levels:
1. Receiving: Awareness and willingness to engage.
2. Responding: Active participation.
3. Valuing: Attachment to a value or belief.
4. Organizing: Prioritizing values.
5. Characterizing: Behavior consistent with values.
3. Psychomotor Domain: Focuses on physical and motor skills.
Levels:
1. Perception: Awareness of stimuli.
2. Set: Readiness to act.
3. Guided Response: Performing tasks under guidance.
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4. Mechanism: Developing proficiency.

5. Complex Overt Response: Skilled performance of complex tasks.
6. Adaptation: Modifying skills for new situations.
7. Origination: Creating new movements or patterns.

2.2 Writing Instructional Objectives

Definition: Instructional objectives are clear, specific statements about what learners will be
able to do after a learning experience.
Key Characteristics of Instructional Objectives:
1. Specific: Focus on precise learning outcomes.
2. Measurable: Can be observed and assessed.
3. Achievable: Realistic and attainable within the instructional period.
4. Relevant: Related to the subject and learning goals.
5. Time-bound: Includes a time frame for achievement.
Components of a Good Objective (ABCD Model):
1. Audience: Specifies who will perform the task (e.g., students).
2. Behavior: Describes what the learner will do (e.g., solve, identify).
3. Condition: Explains the circumstances under which the task is performed (e.g., using a
calculator).
4. Degree: States the level of proficiency required (e.g., 80% accuracy).
Examples of Instructional Objectives:
Cognitive Domain: “Students will list the capitals of 10 countries with 90% accuracy.”
Affective Domain: “Students will defend their position on climate change in a group discussion.”
Psychomotor Domain: “Students will demonstrate the correct procedure for CPR within 3
minutes.”
2.3 The Test Blueprint
Definition: A test blueprint is a table or chart that maps learning objectives to test items,
ensuring alignment between instruction, objectives, and assessment.
Purpose of a Test Blueprint:
1. Ensure comprehensive coverage of content and skills.
2. Align test items with learning objectives.
3. Balance cognitive levels (e.g., knowledge, analysis).
4. Provide a clear structure for test construction.
Steps to Create a Test Blueprint:
1. Identify Learning Objectives: List topics and cognitive skills to be assessed.
2. Determine Weightage: Assign marks or percentages to each topic based on importance.
3. Specify Question Types: Decide on question formats (e.g., MCQs, essays).
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4. Allocate Marks: Divide marks proportionately among topics and skills.

Example of a Test Blueprint:

2.4 Matching Test Items to Instructional Objectives

Definition: Aligning test items with instructional objectives to accurately measure students’
achievement of learning goals.
Key Steps:
1. Analyze the Objective: Break down what the learner must know or do.
2. Choose an Appropriate Item Type:
For recall objectives: Use multiple-choice, true/false, or short-answer items.
For analysis and evaluation: Use essay or scenario-based questions.
For psychomotor skills: Use performance tasks or practical exams.
3. Ensure Clear Alignment: Write test items that directly reflect the objective.
4. Check for Bias and Validity: Ensure items are fair and measure the intended skill or
knowledge.
Examples:
Objective: “Students will analyze the causes of World War I.”
Matching Test Item: “Write an essay explaining three major causes of World War I and their
impact.”
Objective: “Students will identify the main parts of a plant cell.”
Matching Test Item: “Label the diagram of a plant cell with its key components.”
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Unit 03: Types of Tests and Construction of Test Items

3.1 Essay Type Test
3.2
Definition:
An essay-type test requires students to respond to a question or statement in their own words,
often involving critical thinking, analysis, and explanation.
Characteristics:
Encourages higher-order thinking.
Responses are flexible and open-ended.
Time-consuming to write and grade.
Scoring can be subjective.
Types of Essay Questions:
1. Restricted-Response:
Provides specific guidelines or limits to the response.
Example: “Explain the causes of World War I in 150 words.”
2. Extended-Response:
Allows greater freedom in content and length.
Example: “Discuss the social and economic effects of industrialization.”
Advantages:
Measures deep understanding and the ability to organize ideas.
Allows assessment of creativity and originality.
Disadvantages:
Subjective scoring can introduce bias.
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Time-intensive for both test-takers and graders.

Tips for Writing Essay Questions:
1. Clearly define the scope of the question.
2. Use action verbs like analyze, compare, justify.
3. Provide clear instructions on length and focus.

Scoring Essay Tests:

1. Analytic Scoring: Breaks the response into components and grades each part.
2. Holistic Scoring: Assigns a single score based on overall quality

3.2 Objective Type Test

Definition:
An objective-type test consists of questions with fixed responses, such as multiple-choice,
true/false, and matching items.
Characteristics:
Measures specific knowledge or skills.
Easy to grade and administer.
Limited in assessing higher-order thinking.
Types of Objective Test Items:
3.2.1 Recognition Type Items
3.2.2
Definition:
Require students to identify or recognize the correct answer from a list of options.
Examples:
1. Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs):
Consists of a stem (question or problem) and several options, one of which is correct.
Example:
Which planet is known as the Red Planet?
a) Earth
b) Mars (Correct)
c) Venus
d) Jupiter
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Tips for Writing MCQs:

Keep the stem clear and concise.
Avoid ambiguous or overlapping options.
Ensure there is only one correct answer.
2. True/False Questions:
Simple statements that students mark as true or false.
Example: The sun revolves around the Earth. (False)
Advantages:
Easy to construct and score.
Useful for assessing factual knowledge.
Disadvantages:
Guessing can lead to correct answers.
Limited to surface-level understanding.
3. Matching Items:
Students match items from two related columns.
Example:
Column A (Terms):
1. Photosynthesis
2. Respiration
3. Evaporation
Column B (Descriptions):
a) Process by which water turns into vapor.
b) Process by which plants make food. (Correct for 1)
c) Breakdown of food to release energy.

3.2.2 Recall Type Items

Definition:
Require students to retrieve information from memory without prompts.
Examples:
1. Short-Answer Questions:
Students write brief responses to a question.
Example:
What is the capital of France? (Answer: Paris)
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Advantages:
Minimizes guessing.
Tests recall and factual knowledge.
Disadvantages:
Scoring can take more time than recognition items.
2. Completion Questions (Fill-in-the-Blank):
Students complete a sentence with the missing word(s).
Example:
The process of converting light energy into chemical energy is called ________________. (Answer:
Photosynthesis)
3.2.3 Verbal Tests
Definition:
Tests that primarily assess language proficiency, verbal reasoning, or comprehension skills.
Types of Verbal Test Items:
1. Reading Comprehension:
Passages followed by questions assessing understanding, inference, and analysis.
Example:
Passage: “The Nile River is the longest river in the world…”
Question: “What is the primary geographical significance of the Nile River?”
2. Vocabulary Tests:
Questions assessing word meanings, synonyms, and antonyms.
Example:
What is the synonym of ‘abundant’?
a) Scarce
b) Plentiful (Correct)
c) Unique
3. Grammar and Sentence Completion Tests:
Advantages of Verbal Tests:
Useful for assessing language skills.
Can be designed for all proficiency levels.
Disadvantages:
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May not measure content knowledge in other domains.

Comparison of Essay and Objective Tests

Unit 4: Assembling, Administering, and Scoring the Test

4.1 Assembling the Test
Definition:
The process of organizing and structuring test items into a complete and cohesive test to
evaluate specific learning objectives effectively.
Steps for Assembling a Test:
1. Determine the Test Blueprint:
Use a test blueprint to ensure coverage of all content areas and cognitive levels.
Include a balance of question types (e.g., MCQs, short answers, essays).
2. Select Test Items:
Choose items that match the instructional objectives and content areas.
Ensure clarity, relevance, and alignment with difficulty levels (easy, moderate, hard).
3. Arrange Items Logically:
Group similar item types together for ease of answering.
Arrange questions from easier to more difficult to build confidence.
4. Set Time Limits:
Estimate the time required for each section and provide clear instructions on the total time
allowed.
5. Review and Edit Items:
Check for errors, ambiguity, and clarity in wording.
Ensure all answer options in objective questions are plausible.
6. Prepare Instructions:
Write clear and concise instructions for each section.
Include information on marking schemes, time limits, and allowed resources (if any).
7. Format the Test:
Use a clean and consistent layout.
Leave space for student responses where necessary.
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Checklist for Assembling the Test:

Are all objectives covered?
Is there an appropriate mix of item types?
Are instructions clear?
Are time and marks allocated appropriately?
4.2 Administering the Test
Definition:
The process of conducting the test in a controlled environment to ensure fairness and reliability
of results.
Steps for Administering the Test:
1. Preparation Before the Test:
Ensure the testing room is well-lit, quiet, and free of distractions.
Provide students with all necessary materials (e.g., answer sheets, pencils).
Communicate the test schedule and rules in advance.
2. Instructions to Test-Takers:
Explain the purpose of the test and the rules for completion.
Clarify the time limit and marking scheme.
Address any last-minute questions without revealing answers.
3. During the Test:
Monitor students to prevent cheating or distractions.
Provide reminders about remaining time at regular intervals.
Avoid interruptions during the test.
4. Post-Test Activities:
Collect all test materials systematically.
Check for completeness (e.g., ensuring all answer sheets are submitted).
Address any incidents (e.g., students who fell sick or faced issues).
Tips for Effective Test Administration:
Start the test on time.
Maintain a calm and organized atmosphere.
Ensure fairness for all students (e.g., accommodations for special needs).
4.3 Scoring the Test
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4.4
Definition:
The process of evaluating student responses to assign marks or grades based on their
performance.
Methods of Scoring:
1. Manual Scoring:
Used for essays, short-answer questions, and practical tasks.
Scoring is based on rubrics or pre-determined criteria.
2. Automated Scoring:
Used for objective-type tests (e.g., MCQs).
Involves scanning answer sheets using software or answer keys.
Scoring Procedures:
1. Develop a Scoring Key or Rubric:
Objective items: Create an answer key with correct responses.
Subjective items: Use rubrics with specific criteria for scoring (e.g., content, organization,
grammar).
2. Ensure Reliability in Scoring:
Use multiple scorers or blind scoring to reduce bias in subjective tests.
Standardize the scoring process across all test-takers.
3. Calculate Total Scores:
Sum up marks for each section and calculate the final score.
Convert raw scores to percentages or grades if needed.
4. Provide Feedback:
Highlight strengths and areas for improvement.
Share individual scores with students promptly.
Common Issues in Scoring:
Bias: Subjectivity in scoring subjective tests.
Errors: Miscalculations or overlooking partial credit.
Lack of Consistency: Different standards applied by scorers.
Solutions to Scoring Challenges:
Use detailed rubrics for essays and open-ended responses.
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Train scorers to ensure consistency and fairness.

Double-check calculations and cross-verify scores.

Unit 5: Qualities of a Good Measuring Instrument

A good measuring instrument is essential to ensure that the results of assessments are
meaningful, consistent, and applicable. The following are the key qualities that every good
measuring instrument must possess:
5.1 Validity
Definition:
Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. It ensures
that the test is accurate and relevant to its purpose.
Types of Validity:
1. Content Validity:
Ensures the test covers the entire content area and is representative of the subject being
assessed.
Example: A math test designed for algebra should include all key topics like equations,
inequalities, and graphs.
2. Construct Validity:
Measures whether the test accurately assesses the theoretical construct or concept it is
intended to measure.
Example: A creativity test should measure creativity, not unrelated skills like memory.
3. Criterion-Related Validity:
Assesses how well a test correlates with an external criterion.
Divided into:
Predictive Validity: The test predicts future performance (e.g., SAT predicting college success).
Concurrent Validity: The test correlates with an established measure (e.g., new intelligence test
correlating with an existing IQ test).
4. Face Validity:
Refers to how the test appears to stakeholders (students, teachers, administrators) as
measuring what it claims to.
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Ensuring Validity:
Align test items with objectives.
Avoid unrelated or ambiguous questions.
Conduct expert reviews to validate content.
5.2 Reliability
Definition:
Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of test results over time and across different
conditions.
Types of Reliability:
1. Test-Retest Reliability:
The same test is administered to the same group at two different times, and scores are
compared.
High correlation indicates reliability.
2. Inter-Rater Reliability:
Consistency of scoring between different evaluators or raters.
Example: Multiple teachers scoring the same essays using the same rubric.
3. Split-Half Reliability:
The test is divided into two halves, and the scores from each half are correlated.
Ensures internal consistency of the test.
4. Parallel-Forms Reliability:
Two versions of the same test are administered to the same group, and scores are compared.
Factors Affecting Reliability:
Ambiguous or unclear questions.
Environmental distractions during the test.
Inconsistent scoring methods.
Improving Reliability:
Standardize test administration procedures.
Use clear and unambiguous language.
Train evaluators for consistency in scoring.
5.3 Objectivity
Definition:
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Objectivity refers to the degree to which test results are free from personal bias or subjectivity,
ensuring that all test-takers are assessed fairly.
Importance of Objectivity:
Promotes fairness in assessment.
Ensures that results are based solely on performance and not on factors like evaluator
preferences or prejudices.
Examples of Objective and Subjective Tests:
Objective: Multiple-choice, true/false, and matching items where answers are fixed.
Subjective: Essay tests where scoring depends on evaluator judgment.
Enhancing Objectivity:
Use standardized scoring keys or rubrics.
Train scorers to avoid personal bias.
Design objective-type questions wherever possible.
5.4 Differentiability
Definition:
Differentiability refers to a test’s ability to distinguish between high-performing and low-
performing students effectively.
Characteristics of a Differentiable Test:
Includes questions of varying difficulty levels.
Challenges top performers while being accessible to average and low performers.
Measures of Differentiability:
1. Item Discrimination Index:
Measures how well a question differentiates between high and low performers.
A positive discrimination index indicates a good question.
2. Item Analysis:
Analyzes test items to identify which questions work well and which do not.
Improving Differentiability:
Include a mix of easy, moderate, and difficult questions.
Avoid overly simplistic or excessively complex questions.
Regularly review and revise test items based on item analysis.
5.3 Practicality
Definition:
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Practicality refers to the ease with which a test can be designed, administered, and scored,
considering available resources.
Factors Affecting Practicality:
1. Time:
The test should be completed within a reasonable time frame.
Example: A 2-hour test for a standard school period.
2. Cost:
The test should be cost-effective in terms of materials, printing, and evaluation.
3. Resources:
Consider the availability of testing rooms, materials, and technological tools.
4. Scoring Effort:
Objective tests are more practical due to automated scoring.
Essay tests require significant time and effort to score.
Ensuring Practicality:
Use available resources efficiently.
Balance test length and depth of assessment.
Opt for scalable methods like computerized testing when applicable.
Summary of Qualities
These qualities collectively ensure that a test is effective, fair, and efficient in measuring
student performance. Let me know if you need further elaboration!
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Unit 6: Appraising Classroom Tests (Item Analysis)

Item analysis is a process used to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of test items
(questions) to improve assessments. It provides insights into how well test items function in
distinguishing between high and low-performing students.
6.1 The Value/Importance of Item Analysis
Definition:
Item analysis evaluates individual test items to ensure they are effective in assessing the
intended objectives.
Importance:
1. Improves Test Quality:
Identifies flawed, ambiguous, or poorly performing items.
Enhances the validity and reliability of tests.
2. Supports Instructional Improvement:
Provides feedback on whether students understand the material.
Highlights areas where instruction needs improvement.
3. Ensures Fairness:
Identifies items that may be biased or unclear.
Ensures equal opportunity for all test-takers.
4. Differentiates Student Performance:
Helps in identifying questions that distinguish between high and low achievers.
5. Guides Future Test Construction:
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Provides a basis for revising or replacing ineffective items.

6.2 The Procedure/Process of Item Analysis
1. Administer the Test:
Conduct the test under standardized conditions.
2. Collect Data:
Gather responses from a sufficient number of students to ensure meaningful analysis.
3. Score the Test:
Separate students into two groups:
Upper Group: High performers (top 27% or 33% of the class).
Lower Group: Low performers (bottom 27% or 33% of the class).
4. Analyze Test Items:
Focus on three main aspects:
Item Difficulty: Proportion of students answering correctly.
Index of Discrimination: Ability of the item to differentiate between high and low performers.
Distractibility: Effectiveness of incorrect answer choices (distractors).
5. Revise Items:
Modify or replace items based on analysis results.
6.3 Item Difficulty
Definition:
Item difficulty measures how easy or difficult a test question is for students.
Formula:
P = \frac{\text{Number of students who answered correctly}}{\text{Total number of
students}}
Interpretation:
: Easy item (70% or more answered correctly).
: Difficult item (30% or fewer answered correctly).
Ideal Range: .
Importance:
Ensures the test has a balanced mix of easy, moderate, and difficult items.
6.4 The Index of Discrimination
Definition:
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The discrimination index measures how well a test item distinguishes between high-performing
and low-performing students.
Formula:
D = \frac{U – L}{N}
: Number of correct answers in the upper group.
: Number of correct answers in the lower group.
: Number of students in each group.
Interpretation:
: Good item (positive discrimination).
: Acceptable but needs improvement.
: Poor item, likely ineffective.
Importance:
Identifies items that help differentiate between high and low achievers.
Ensures the test is fair and meaningful.
6.3 Distractibility
Definition:
Distractibility evaluates the effectiveness of incorrect answer options (distractors) in multiple-
choice questions.
Key Points:
1. Effective Distractors:
Should attract students who do not know the correct answer.
Each distractor should be plausible and relevant.
2. Ineffective Distractors:
Rarely selected by students.
Indicates that distractors are too obvious or irrelevant.
Steps to Analyze Distractors:
1. Count the number of students selecting each option.
2. Identify options rarely or never selected and revise them.
3. Ensure that all distractors are grammatically and contextually correct.
Importance:
Ensures multiple-choice questions are challenging and fair.
Reduces the chances of guessing the correct answer.
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Unit 7: Interpreting Test Results

Interpreting test results is a critical step in assessing student performance and using data to
inform instruction, grading, and feedback. This unit focuses on analyzing and presenting test
data effectively.

7.1 Percentage Correct Score

Definition:

The percentage correct score represents the proportion of correct answers a student achieved in
a test, expressed as a percentage.

Formula:

\text{Percentage Correct} = \left( \frac{\text{Number of Correct Answers}}{\text{Total Number

of Questions}} \right) \times 100

Example:

A student answers 45 questions correctly out of 50.

\text{Percentage Correct} = \left( \frac{45}{50} \right) \times 100 = 90\%

Uses:

1. Provides a clear, standardized measure of student performance.

2. Simplifies comparisons between students or groups.
7.2 Ordering and Ranking

Definition:
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Ordering arranges students’ scores from highest to lowest, while ranking assigns a specific
position to each student based on their score.

Steps for Ordering and Ranking:

1. Collect the test scores for all students.

2. Arrange the scores in descending order.
3. Assign ranks based on the order.

Example:

Uses:

1. Identifies top-performing students.

2. Helps in assigning honors or awards.
3. Supports decisions about remedial instruction for lower performers.

7.3 Tabulation of Data/Frequency Distribution

Definition:

Tabulation organizes data into tables, while frequency distribution shows how often each score
occurs in a dataset.

Steps for Creating a Frequency Distribution:

1. Divide the scores into intervals (e.g., 10-point ranges).

2. Count the number of students in each interval.
3. Tabulate the intervals and frequencies.

Example:

Uses:

1. Summarizes large datasets into a compact format.

2. Highlights trends in student performance (e.g., most common score range).
7.4 Graphing Data (Histogram, Polygon)

Definition:

Graphs provide a visual representation of test data, making it easier to identify patterns and
trends.

Types of Graphs:

1. Histogram:

A bar graph representing frequency distribution.

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Each bar’s height corresponds to the frequency of scores in an interval.

Example:

2. Frequency Polygon:

A line graph connecting the midpoints of score intervals.

Example: Points are plotted for 90–100 (5), 80–89 (8), etc., and connected by lines.

Uses of Graphs:

1. Easy comparison of performance across intervals.

2. Visualizes skewness or spread in data.

7.3 Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, and Mode)

Definition:

Measures of central tendency summarize data by identifying a central point in the dataset.

Types:

1. Mean (Average):

Sum of all scores divided by the total number of scores.

Formula:

\text{Mean} = \frac{\text{Sum of all scores}}{\text{Number of scores}}

2. Median (Middle Value):

The middle score when data is arranged in ascending or descending order.

If odd: The middle number.

If even: The average of the two middle numbers.

Example: Scores = {60, 70, 80, 90}, Median = .

3. Mode (Most Frequent Score):

The score that appears most often.

Example: Scores = {60, 70, 70, 90}, Mode = 70.

Uses of Central Tendency:

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1. Mean: Provides an overall average.

2. Median: Useful for skewed data (not affected by outliers).
3. Mode: Highlights the most common score.