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 1. Introduction 62

1. 3.1 Using Built-In Functions 62

2. 3.2 Using the Help Feature 64

3. 3.3 Elementary Math Functions 67

4. 3.4 Trigonometric Functions 75

5. 3.5 Data Analysis Functions 79

6. 3.6 Random Numbers 98

7. 3.7 Complex Numbers 103

8. 3.8 Computational Limitations 106

9. 3.9 Special Values and Miscellaneous Functions 108

1. Summary 110

2. MATLAB® Summary 110

3. Key Terms 112

4. Problems 112

4. 4 Manipulating MATLAB® Matrices 119

1. 4.1 Manipulating Matrices 119

2. 4.2 Problems with Two Variables—Using Meshgrid 126

3. 4.3 Special Matrices 133

1. Summary 139

2. MATLAB® Summary 139

 3. Key Terms 140

4. Problems 140

5. 5 Plotting 146

1. Introduction 146

1. 5.1 Two-Dimensional Plots 146

2. 5.2 Subplots 163

3. 5.3 Other Types of Two-Dimensional Plots 165

4. 5.4 Three-Dimensional Plotting 182

5. 5.5 Editing Plots From the Menu Bar 189

6. 5.6 Creating Plots From the Workspace Window 191

7. 5.7 Saving Your Plots 192

1. Summary 193

2. MATLAB® Summary 193

3. Problems 195

6. 6 User-Defined Functions 206

1. Introduction 206

1. 6.1 Creating Function Files 206

2. 6.2 Creating Your Own Toolbox of Functions 225

3. 6.3 Anonymous Functions and Function Handles 226

4. 6.4 Function Functions 228

 5. 6.5 Subfunctions 229

1. Summary 235

2. MATLAB® Summary 236

3. Key Terms 236

4. Problems 236

7. 7 User-Controlled Input and Output 243

1. Introduction 243

1. 7.1 User-Defined Input 243

2. 7.2 Output Options 248

3. 7.3 Graphical Input 259

4. 7.4 More Features Using Section Dividers 260

5. 7.5 Reading and Writing Data from Files 262

6. 7.6 Debugging Your Code 265

1. Summary 269

2. MATLAB® Summary 270

3. Key Terms 271

4. Problems 271

8. 8 Logical Functions and Selection Structures 276

1. Introduction 276

1. 8.1 Relational and Logical Operators 277

 2. 8.2 Flowcharts and Pseudocode 279

3. 8.3 Logical Functions 281

4. 8.4 Selection Structures 287

5. 8.5 Debugging 304

1. Summary 304

2. MATLAB® Summary 305

3. Key Terms 305

4. Problems 306

9. 9 Repetition Structures 318

1. Introduction 318

1. 9.1 For Loops 319

2. 9.2 While Loops 327

3. 9.3 Break and Continue 335

4. 9.4 Midpoint Break Loops 336

5. 9.5 Nested Loops 340

6. 9.6 Improving the Efficiency of Loops 341

1. Summary 344

2. MATLAB® Summary 345

3. Key Terms 345

4. Problems 345
10. 10 Matrix Algebra 351

1. Introduction 351

1. 10.1 Matrix Operations and Functions 351

2. 10.2 Solutions of Systems of Linear Equations 371

3. 10.3 Special Matrices 385

1. Summary 388

2. MATLAB® Summary 390

3. Key Terms 390

4. Problems 390

11. 11 Other Kinds of Arrays 398

1. Introduction 398

1. 11.1 Data Types 399

2. 11.2 Numeric Data Types 399

3. 11.3 Character and String Data 405

4. 11.4 Symbolic Data 413

5. 11.5 Logical Data 413

6. 11.6 Sparse Arrays 414

7. 11.7 Categorical Arrays 415

8. 11.8 Time Arrays 415

9. 11.9 Multidimensional Arrays 420

 10. 11.10 Cell Arrays 421

11. 11.11 Structure Arrays 423

12. 11.12 Table Arrays 430

1. Summary 431

2. MATLAB® Summary 432

3. Key Terms 433

4. Problems 433

12. 12 Symbolic Mathematics 441

1. Introduction 441

1. 12.1 Symbolic Algebra 442

2. 12.2 Solving Expressions and Equations 448

3. 12.3 Symbolic Plotting 459

4. 12.4 Calculus 467

5. 12.5 Differential Equations 481

6. 12.6 Converting Symbolic Expressions to Anonymous Functions

485

1. Summary 486

2. MATLAB® Summary 487

3. Problems 488

13. 13 Numerical Techniques 497

 1. 13.1 Interpolation 497

2. 13.2 Curve Fitting 507

3. 13.3 Using the Interactive Fitting Tools 520

4. 13.4 Differences and Numerical Differentiation 523

5. 13.5 Numerical Integration 532

6. 13.6 Solving Differential Equations Numerically 538

1. Summary 545

2. MATLAB® Summary 547

3. Key Terms 547

4. Problems 548

14. 14 Advanced Graphics 557

1. Introduction 557

1. 14.1 Images 557

2. 14.2 Graphics Objects 572

3. 14.3 Animation 578

4. 14.4 Other Visualization Techniques 585

5. 14.5 Introduction to Volume Visualization 587

1. Summary 590

2. MATLAB® Summary 591

3. Key Terms 592

 4. Problems 592

15. 15 Creating Graphical User Interfaces 595

1. Introduction 595

1. 15.1 A Simple Gui with One User Interaction 596

2. 15.2 A Graphical User Interface with Multiple User Interactions

—ready_aim_fire 604

3. 15.3 An Improved ready_aim_fire Program 607

4. 15.4 A Much Better ready_aim_fire Program 609

5. 15.5 Built-In Gui Templates 613

1. Summary 616

2. Key Terms 616

3. Problems 616

16. 16 Simulink®—A Brief Introduction 618

1. Introduction 618

1. 16.1 Applications 618

2. 16.2 Getting Started 619

3. 16.3 Solving Differential Equations with Simulink® 627

1. Summary 633

2. Key Terms 634

3. Problems 634
1. Appendix A Special Characters, Commands, and Functions 638

2. Appendix B Scaling Techniques 653

3. Appendix C The Ready_Aim_Fire Gui 656

4. Appendix D 661

5. Index 663
About This Book
This book grew out of my experience teaching MATLAB® and other
computing languages to freshmen engineering students at Salt Lake
Community College. I was frustrated by the lack of a text that “started at the
beginning.” Although there were many comprehensive reference books, they
assumed a level of both mathematical and computer sophistication that my
students did not possess. Also, because MATLAB® was originally adopted
by practitioners in the fields of signal processing and electrical engineering,
most of these texts provided examples primarily from those areas, an
approach that didn’t fit with a general engineering curriculum. This text starts
with basic algebra and shows how MATLAB® can be used to solve
engineering problems from a wide range of disciplines. The examples are
drawn from concepts introduced in early chemistry and physics classes and
freshman and sophomore engineering classes. A standard problem-solving
methodology is used consistently.

The text assumes that the student has a basic understanding of college algebra
and has been introduced to trigonometric concepts; students who are
mathematically more advanced generally progress through the material more
rapidly. Although the text is not intended to teach subjects such as statistics
or matrix algebra, when the MATLAB® techniques related to these subjects
are introduced, a brief background is included. In addition, sections
describing MATLAB® techniques for solving problems by means of calculus
and differential equations are introduced near the end of appropriate chapters.
These sections can be assigned for additional study to students with a more
advanced mathematics background, or they may be useful as reference
material as students progress through an engineering curriculum.

The book is intended to be a “hands-on” manual. My students have been

most successful when they read the book while sitting beside a computer and
typing in the examples as they go. Numerous examples are embedded in the
text, with more complicated numbered examples included in each chapter to
reinforce the concepts introduced. Practice exercises are included in each
chapter to give students an immediate opportunity to use their new skills.

The material is grouped into three sections. The first, An Introduction to

Basic MATLAB® Skills, gets the student started and contains the following
chapters:

Chapter 1 shows how MATLAB® is used in engineering and introduces

a standard problem-solving methodology.

Chapter 2 introduces the MATLAB® environment and the skills

required to perform basic computations. It also introduces MATLAB
program files (​sometimes called M-files) , and the concept of organizing
code into sections. Doing so early in the text makes it easier for students
to save their work and develop a consistent programming strategy.

Chapter 3 details the wide variety of problems that can be solved with
built-in MATLAB® functions. Background material on many of the
functions is provided to help the student understand how they might be
used. For example, the difference between Gaussian random numbers
and uniform random numbers is described, and examples of each are
presented.

Chapter 4 demonstrates the power of formulating problems by using

matrices in MATLAB® and expanding on the techniques employed to
define those matrices. The meshgrid function is introduced in this
chapter and is used to solve problems with two variables. The difficult
concept of meshing variables is revisited in Chapter 5 when surface
plots are introduced.

Chapter 5 describes the wide variety of both two-dimensional and

three-​dimensional plotting techniques available in MATLAB®. Creating
plots via MATLAB® commands, either from the command window or
from within a MATLAB ​program, is emphasized. However, the
extremely valuable techniques of interactively editing plots and creating
plots directly from the workspace window are also introduced.

MATLAB® is a powerful programming language that includes the basic

 constructs common to most programming languages. Because it is a
scripting language, creating programs and debugging them in
MATLAB® is often easier than in traditional programming languages
such as C++. This makes MATLAB® a valuable tool for introductory
programming classes. The second section of the text, Programming in
MATLAB®, introduces students to programming and consists of the
following chapters:

Chapter 6 describes how to create and use user-defined functions. It also

teaches students how to create a “toolbox” of functions to use in their
own programming projects.

Chapter 7 introduces functions that interact with the program user,

including user-defined input, formatted output, and graphical input
techniques. The use of MATLAB®’s debugging tools is also introduced.

Chapter 8 describes logical functions such as find and demonstrates how

they vary from the if and if/else structures. The switch/case structure is
also introduced. The use of logical functions over control structures is
emphasized, partly because students (and teachers) who have previous
programming experience often overlook the advantages of using
MATLAB®’s built-in matrix functionality.

Chapter 9 introduces repetition structures, including for loops, while

loops, and midpoint break loops that utilize the break command.
Numerous examples are included because students find these concepts
particularly challenging.

Chapters 1 through 9 should be taught sequentially, but the chapters in

Section 3, Advanced MATLAB® Concepts, do not depend upon each other.
Any or all of these chapters could be used in an introductory course or could
serve as reference material for self-study. Most of the material is appropriate
for freshmen. A two-credit course might include Chapters 1 through 9 plus
Chapter 10, while a three-credit course might include Chapters 1 through 14,
but eliminate Sections 12.4, 12.5, 13.4, 13.5, and 13.6, which describe
differentiation techniques, integration techniques, and solution techniques for
differential equations. Chapters 15 and 16 will be interesting to more
advanced students, and might be included in a course delivered to sophomore
or junior students instead of to freshmen. The skills developed in these
chapters will be especially useful as students become more involved in
solving engineering problems:

Chapter 10 discusses problem solving with matrix algebra, including dot

products, cross products, and the solution of linear systems of equations.
Although matrix algebra is widely used in all engineering fields, it finds
early application in the statics and dynamics classes taken by most
engineering majors.

Chapter 11 is an introduction to the wide variety of data types available

in MATLAB®. This chapter is especially useful for electrical
engineering and computer engineering students.

Chapter 12 introduces MATLAB®’s symbolic mathematics package,

built on the MuPad engine. Students will find this material especially
valuable in mathematics classes. My students tell me that the package is
one of the most valuable sets of techniques introduced in the course. It is
something they start using immediately.

Chapter 13 presents numerical techniques used in a wide variety of

applications, especially curve fitting and statistics. Students value these
techniques when they take laboratory classes such as chemistry or
physics or when they take the labs associated with engineering classes
such as heat transfer, fluid dynamics, or strengths of materials.

Chapter 14 examines graphical techniques used to visualize data. These

techniques are especially useful for analyzing the results of numerical
analysis calculations, including results from structural analysis, fluid
dynamics, and heat transfer codes.

Chapter 15 introduces MATLAB®’s graphical user interface capability,

using the GUIDE application. Creating their own graphical user
interfaces gives students insight into how the graphical user interfaces
they use daily on other computer platforms are created.

Chapter 16 introduces Simulink®, which is a simulation package built on

 top of the MATLAB® platform. Simulink® uses a graphical user
interface that allows programmers to build models of dynamic systems.
It has found significant acceptance in the field of electrical engineering
but has wide application across the engineering spectrum.

Appendix A lists all of the functions and special symbols (or characters)
introduced in the text. Appendix B describes strategies for scaling data, so
that the resulting plots are linear. Appendix C includes the complete
MATLAB® code to create the Ready_Aim_Fire graphical user interface
described in Chapter 15. Appendix D includes the Asheville, North Carolina
weather data used in a number of the example problems.

An instructor web site includes the following material:

M-files and Live Scripts containing solutions to practice exercises

(These files are also available on the student version of the website.)

M-files containing solutions to example problems

M-files and Live Scripts containing solutions to homework problems

PowerPoint slides for each chapter

All of the figures used in the text, suitable for inclusion in your own
PowerPoint presentations

A series of lectures (including narration) suitable for use with online

classes or as reviews

Appendix E Solutions to Practice Exercises can be found at the following

website:

www.pearsonhighered.com/moore

What’S New In This Edition

New versions of MATLAB® are rolled out every six months, which makes
keeping any text up-to-date a challenge. Significant changes were introduced
in version 2014b to the graphics package. Another major change occurred in
2016 with the addition of Live Scripts and major changes to the symbolic
algebra functionality. Multiple new data types were introduced in both the
2016 updates. The changes in this edition reflect these software updates up
through R2016b, which include the following:

Screen shots shown in the book were updated to reflect the 2016b
release.

The use of subfunctions in MATLAB programs was updated, since

functions no longer need to be stored in separate files.

Live Scripts were introduced.

New functionality and behavior associated with the 2014 graphics

update is included.

The behavior of the symbolic algebra package in MATLAB has changed

dramatically, and the impacts are reflected in changes to Chapter 12.
The use of implicit symbolic variables, designated with single quotes
has largely been eliminated as an acceptable programming technique.
Symbolic plotting functions have been replaced with newer functions
that will accept both symbolic and function input.

New data types, such as table, datetime and strings are introduced.

A number of new functions were introduced throughout the book,

largely related to the new data types introduced in 2016.

Additional problems were added and some problems were modified,

based on the feedback from both instructors and students who have used
the book. Historic data used in the problems has been updated to current
values – for example ACE hurricane information now includes data
through 2016.
Dedication and Acknowledgments
This project would not have been possible without the support of both my
family and colleagues. Thanks to Mike, Heidi, Meagan, and David, and to my
husband, Dr. Steven Purcell. I also benefited greatly from the suggestions for
problems related to electricity from Lee Brinton and Gene Riggs of the SLCC
Electrical Engineering Department. Their cheerful efforts to educate me on
the mysteries of electricity are much appreciated. I’d also like to thank
Quentin McRae, also at SLCC, who made numerous suggestions that
improved the homework problems. And finally, Art Fox has been my tireless
colleague and collaborator for almost 20 years and is responsible in large part
for the success of our MATLAB computing courses at SLCC – especially the
online versions.

This book is dedicated to my father, Professor George E. Moore, who taught

in the Department of Electrical Engineering at the South Dakota School of
Mines and Technology for almost 20 years. Professor Moore earned his
college degree at the age of 54 after a successful career as a pilot in the
United States Air Force and was a living reminder that you are never too old
to learn. My mother, Jean Moore, encouraged both him and her two
daughters to explore outside the box. Her loving support made it possible for
both my sister and I to enjoy careers in engineering—something few women
attempted in the early 1970s. I hope that readers of this text will take a minute
to thank those people in their lives who’ve helped them make their dreams
come true. Thanks Mom and Dad!
CHAPTER 1 About MATLAB®
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Understand what ​MATLAB® is and why it is widely used in engineering

and science.

Understand the advantages and limitations of the student edition of

MATLAB®.

Formulate problems using a structured problem-​solving approach.

1.1 What is MATLAB®?
MATLAB® is one of a number of commercially available mathematical
computation tools, which also include Maple, Mathematica, and MathCad.
Despite what proponents may claim, no single one of these tools is “the best.”
Each has strengths and weaknesses. Each allows you to perform basic
mathematical computations. They differ in the way they handle symbolic
calculations and more complicated mathematical processes, such as matrix
manipulation. For example, MATLAB® (short for Matrix L ​ aboratory)
excels at computations involving matrices, whereas Maple excels at symbolic
calculations. At a fundamental level, you can think of these applications as
sophisticated computer-based calculators. They can perform the same
functions as your scientific calculator—and many more. If you have a
computer on your desk, you may find yourself using MATLAB® instead of
your calculator for even the simplest mathematical applications such as
balancing your checkbook. In many engineering classes, the use of
applications such as MATLAB® to perform computations is replacing more
traditional computer programming. Although applications such as
MATLAB® have become standards tool for engineers and scientists, this
doesn’t mean that you shouldn’t learn a high-level language such as C++,
Java, or Fortran.

Because MATLAB® is so easy to use, you can perform many programming

tasks with it, but it isn’t always the best tool for a programming task. It excels
at numerical calculations—especially matrix calculations—and graphics, but
you wouldn’t want to use it to write a word-processing program. For large
applications, such as operating systems or design software, C++ Java, or
Fortran would be the applications of choice. (In fact, MATLAB®, which is a
large application, was originally written in Fortran and later rewritten in C, a
precursor of C++) Usually, high-level applications do not offer easy access to
graphing—a task at which MATLAB® excels. The primary area of overlap
between MATLAB® and high-level applications is “number crunching”—
repetitive calculations or the processing of large quantities of data. Both
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 The retreat from Warsaw. Ammunition on the road.

In dealing with such extended operations at this time, it is

impossible to write accurately, because the Front has been so great
that nine-tenths of the information in regard to details is not yet
available. The writer was for the period from July 10 to August 5 in
daily contact with this Front, and in that period motored thousands
of versts, was in practically all of the armies involved in what may be
called the Warsaw movement, and at the positions in innumerable
places. Yet he hesitates to attempt to write anything of an
authoritative nature for the moment, although he believes the rough
outline which follows will prove approximately accurate when the
history of the movement is written from the broader perspective
which time only can bring.

It was the opinion of many observers early in May, including the

writer, that Warsaw was the main objective of the great Galician
drive. The Germans intended first to strengthen the moral of the
Austrians by returning them Galicia, but probably the greatest value
of the capture of Galicia was the position which left the Germans on
the flank of Warsaw. Since last Autumn it has been clear that the
Germans regarded Warsaw as the most important strategic prize on
this Front, and those who have followed the war will recall the
constant series of attacks on the Polish capital. First came their
direct advance which frittered away the middle of December, and left
them sticking in the mud and snow on the Bzura line in Poland, still
50 versts from their prize. Spasmodic fighting continued until
January, when their great Bolimov drive was undertaken. Beginning
in the last days of January it continued for six consecutive days. We
are told that ten divisions backed by 600 guns attacked practically
without interruption for six days and six nights. I cannot accurately
state what the German losses were, but I know the Russians
estimated them to be 100,000.
It was clear that Warsaw was not to be taken from the front, and as
the last gun was being fired on the Bolimov position, the new
Prussian flanking movement was launched in East Prussia. This,
though scoring heavily in its early days, soon dissipated as the
Russians adjusted themselves to the shock. That was followed
instantly by another series of operations directed against Warsaw
from the North. This too went up in smoke, and for several weeks
there was a lull, interrupted here and there by preliminary punches
in different parts of the line, intended to discover weakness which
did not appear. By April it was clear that Warsaw was not vulnerable
from the front or North. Then followed the great Galician campaign
which ended with the fall of Lemberg, and by the end of June left
the Germans in their new position with the southern flank of the
armies in Poland prepared for their final drive for Warsaw on the
South. From the light which I have on this campaign I will try and
give the sketch as it has appeared to me.

During the retreat from Warsaw.

 Russian armoured motor-car.

There is no question that the German strategy aimed not merely at

the capture of Warsaw, but at the destruction or capture of the
greater part of the army defending the Polish capital. The German
programme was carefully prepared, and this time they had no
isolated movements, but two great movements developing
simultaneously; one aimed to cut the Warsaw-Petrograd lines from
the North, and the other aimed at Warsaw from the South. The time
which has elapsed is not sufficient, nor is the information available,
to enable one to judge at this time whether the Northern or
Southern movement was the main German objective. I was in the
Cholm-Lublin Army head-quarters just before the heavy fighting
began, and was then of the opinion that the most important German
activity was contemplated on this sector. It is apparent by a glance
at the map, that an overwhelming success here would have been of
incredible importance to the enemy. Had they been able to destroy
this army as they did the one bearing the same number on the
Dunajec in May, they could have moved directly on Brest-Litowsk by
Wlodava and cut the Warsaw line of communications to the direct
rear 180 versts away. A rapid success here would have certainly
resulted in just the disaster that the Germans were hoping would be
the outcome of their programme.

The movement on the North from the direction of Mlawa toward

Przasnys-Ciechanow was of course a direct threat on the Warsaw-
Petrograd line of communications. Success here would have forced
the evacuation of the city and a general change of the Russian line;
but even had it been a sweeping one, it had not the potentialities of
the calamity which a similar success on the Cholm line would have
had. Perhaps the Germans estimated both to be of approximately
equal importance, and a double success, occurring simultaneously,
would have undoubtedly repeated the Moukden fiasco on an
infinitely larger scale. It must be remembered that when this
movement started, the Russians in the South were at the end of a
gruelling campaign of nearly two months’ continuous warfare, in
which, through lack of munitions, they were obliged to withdraw
under difficult and extremely delicate circumstances. The army
defending the Cholm-Lublin line was in name the same that had
been so very badly cut up six weeks earlier, and the Germans no
doubt believed that every one of the Russian Armies engaged from
the Bukowina to the Vistula had been so badly shaken up that any
effective resistance would be impossible. It was because their
estimate was so far out that their programme was doomed to
disappointment.
 The retreat from Warsaw. Wounded in a barn outside Warsaw.

My own observation of the Russian Armies is that if they are given a

fortnight, or even a week, in which to recuperate, they are good for
a month of continuous fighting. With almost any other army in the
world, after such an experience as the Russians had had for six
weeks in Galicia, the defence on the Cholm-Lublin line would have
failed, and the Germans might well have driven through to Brest in
two or three weeks, as they no doubt firmly believed that they
would. But the Russians on the Cholm-Lublin line had the benefit of
interior lines of communications, and had also the brief breathing
space which enabled them to pull themselves together. Besides this,
a new General, General Loesche, was in command, and with him
were an important number of the best corps in the Russian Army.
Excellent field works had been prepared, and personally, after
visiting the positions I felt sure that whatever the outcome of the
German move against him might be, it would not result in anything
like the Dunajec enterprise, nor would the enemy be able to drive
through to Brest with sufficient rapidity to cut off the retreat of the
Warsaw army or those lying south of it. The movement in the South
started with such terrific impetus, that for several days it seemed
possible that in spite of the stamina and leadership of the Russians
the enemy would have their way; but after ten days of fighting it
became clear that though the enemy were advancing, their progress
was going to be of so slow and arduous a nature that they would
never be able to inflict a smashing disaster on the Russian Armies.

The details of the battles that raged here for weeks would fill a
volume. Although I visited this army several times during this stage,
and was in four different corps on this Front, I have still but the
vaguest outline in my own mind of the fighting except as a whole.
Every day there was something raging on some part of the line, first
in one place and then in another. The Germans used the same
practice that was so successful in Galicia and massed their batteries
heavily. This method, backed by the Prussian Guards, enabled them
to take Krasnystav. The best trenches that I have ever seen in field
operations were washed away in a day by a torrent of big shells. The
Russians did not retreat. They remained and died, and the Germans
simply marched through the hole in the line, making a change of
front necessary.

The retreat from Warsaw. German prisoners housed in a barn. Note the Russian soldiers
have German rifles.
But this time there was no disorganization of the line as a whole.
The moment the Germans were beyond their supporting artillery, the
Russian infantry were at their throats with the bayonet and drove
them back. The fighting from day to day for weeks was a great zig-
zag, with German advances and retreats before Russian counter-
attacks. But each advance left the enemy a little nearer their
objective, and it was clear that slowly but surely they were, by
superior forces, vastly superior supplies of ammunition and a
constant flow of reserves, forcing the Russians back toward the
Lublin-Cholm-Kovel line of railroad. It became equally obvious
however after ten days that they would never reach Brest in time to
menace seriously the future of the Warsaw army, even if they could
and would spare the men to turn the trick.

As a fact it became apparent here for almost the first time, that the
Germans in spite of their anxiety to attain their objective, were
endeavouring to spare their troops. For the first time I heard the
general comment among officers, that the artillery was now the
main arm in modern warfare, and the infantry its support. I think
this potential failure of their programme dawned on the Germans
even before it did on the Russians; for while all eyes were still on the
Southern Front, the Germans were reinforcing and pushing their
Northern attack which aimed to hit through Pultusk and Wyszkow to
the Petrograd-Warsaw line at Lochow. Perhaps after the first two
weeks in the South this really was their greatest aim. Personally I
think their chance for inflicting a disaster slipped when they failed to
defeat definitely, or destroy the army of Loesche. To him and to the
left flanking corps of Evert, must be accorded the credit of saving
this sector with all its menaces to the future of the campaign and
perhaps the whole European situation. For the last two weeks before
the abandonment of Warsaw, these two great battles, one in the
North and one in the South, were raging simultaneously.

I left Cholm for the last time on July 22, feeling that the fate of
Warsaw would not be decided from that quarter, and, for the
balance of the campaign, divided my time between the South Vistula
armies and those defending the Narew line. It now became clear
that the great menace lay from the Northern blow, and here we
have a very similar story to that of the Southern army. With terrific
drives the enemy took Przasnys, Ciechanow, Makow and at last
Pultusk, and finally succeeded in getting across the Narew with ten
divisions of excellent troops. On this Front, to the best of my
judgment, the Germans at this time had 131 battalions of their very
best available troops and perhaps fifteen reserve battalions with
their usual heavy artillery support. When the crossing of the Narew
was accomplished it seemed inevitable that Warsaw must fall and
immediately the civil evacuation of the city began.

The retreat from Warsaw. Artillery on the road.

It seemed then that the Germans might in a few days drive through
to the railroad, and to save the army in Warsaw an immediate
evacuation in hot haste would prove imperative. But the Russian
Army defending this sector rallied just as their brothers did in the
South. The German drive on Wyszkow took them within 4 versts of
the town, while the Russian counter-attack threw them back fifteen,
with heavy losses in casualties and prisoners. Then there began here
the same sort of slow stubborn fighting that for weeks had been
progressing in the South; only here the German advances were
slower, and the attainment of their objective less certain. About the
same time (July 25-26) the Germans made a try on the Warsaw line
itself, but failed miserably, and abandoned any serious effort against
the new Blonie line to which the Russians, in order to get the most
out of their men and to shorten their line, had withdrawn. It must
never be forgotten that the Russian Front was 1,200 miles long, and
the inability to supply it with men and munitions had made it
necessary to shorten their Front to get the best results from their
numbers. It is hard to say what numbers both belligerents had, and
even if I knew exactly our strength the censor would not pass my
statement. I think it safe to say however, that during these days the
Austro-German forces outnumbered the Russians by at least 50 per
cent., counting effectives only. This shortening left simply Warsaw
itself with its Blonie line from Novo-Georgievsk to Gorakalwara in
Russian hands west of the Vistula.

By the 27th-28th of July there came a wave of hope, and those who
had lost all optimism picked up their courage once more. I know
from the very best authority that up to August 1 it was hoped that
Warsaw might still be saved, though every preparation was being
made for its evacuation. The cause of this burst of optimism was
due to the fact that the terrific German blows both North and South
were not gaining the headway that had been expected. Besides, the
Russians were getting more and more ammunition, and it seemed
more than possible that the Germans might fail of their objective if
only they did not receive increasing reinforcements. These two great
battles North and South, each seeming equally important, had drawn
everything that could be spared to either one point or the other. It
was clear then that there must be some link in the chain weaker
than the others, and the Germans set out to find this.
 During the retreat from Warsaw. Note wounded man.

Without weakening for a moment their attacks on their main

objectives, they began (with new reinforcements) to spear about for
a point against which to launch still a third attack. Several attempts
disclosed the Russians in strength, but at last the enemy discovered
that the weakest spot was on the Vistula south of Warsaw. As this
was the easiest to defend on account of the river being
approximately the line, the Russians had fewer troops and thus the
Germans were able to effect a crossing of the river. I am not able to
state absolutely the day or the place of crossing, but I am inclined to
place it about July 27-28, and I think the first crossing was near the
mouth of the Radomika, while I believe another was made about the
same date somewhere near the mouth of the Pilica river. The enemy
gained an initial advantage at first, but as usual was driven back by
a counter-attack, though he still held his position on the East bank of
the river.

At this time, as nearly as I can estimate, there were four Russian

army corps defending the Blonie line from Novo-Georgievsk to
Gorakalwara. With this strength the few sporadic attacks of the
Germans were futile. When the first crossing of the Vistula
developed, the corps which stood near Gorakalwara crossed the river
and countered the northerly crossing, while troops from the
neighbouring army to the South, covered the menace on that
portion of the line, and it was believed that the enemy had failed
here in his objective which it was thought was the Warsaw-Brest line
at Nova Minsk. It was believed and probably rightly, that even the
three remaining corps on the Blonie line could hold that front, and
that the balance had been re-established, for the Russians hoped
that the Germans had in their fighting line all the loose formations
which were immediately available. About July 30-August 1, the
Germans developed three new divisions (believed to have come from
France), and these crossed the river, giving them practically two
whole corps against half the strength of Russians. It is possible that
even these odds might have been overcome by the stubbornness of
the Russian soldier, but the Russians learned that three Austrian
divisions, said to have come from the Serbian Front were available in
immediate support.

The retreat from Warsaw. One of the last regiments to pass through Warsaw.
From this moment it was evident that Warsaw was doomed. To
weaken the Front on the Blonie line meant a break there, and re-
inforcements could not be sent either from the Narew line or the
Southern Front where actions still raged. It was then clearly a mate
in a few moves, if the Russians waited for it. But they did not.
Instantly began their military evacuation, the cleverness of which
must I think be credited to Alexieff and his brilliant Chief of Staff
Goulevitch. Those of us who have been studying the Warsaw
situation for ten months, imagined that when the evacuation came,
if it ever did, it would be through the city. What happened was
entirely unexpected. The corps at Gorakalwara slipped over the river
on pontoon bridges in the night, supporting the first corps that was
already there, effecting the double purpose of getting out of the
Warsaw zone, and simultaneously coming in between the Germans
and the line of retreat toward Brest. About the same time the corps
that lay next to the Vistula, on the Northern end of the Blonie line,
slipped out over pontoon bridges and went to support the Narew
defenders, thus making impossible the immediate breaking of that
line. On August 4, by noon, there was probably not over one corps
on the West side of the Vistula. Half of that crossed south of Warsaw
before six, and probably the last division left about midnight, and at
three a.m. the bridges were blown up. The Germans arrived at six in
the morning, which seemed to indicate that they were not even in
touch with the Russian rearguard at the end.

What I have written above is to the best of my information the

outline of the Warsaw situation, but it may be in details somewhat
inaccurate, though I think the main points are correct. In any case
there is no question that the whole withdrawal was cleverly
accomplished, and in perfect order, and that when the Germans
finally closed in, they found an abandoned city. Their reports of
having carried Warsaw by storm are undoubtedly true to the extent
that they were in contact with some of the last troops to leave.
Probably the trenches that they carried by storm were held by a
battalion or two of soldiers protecting the rearguard. That the great
body had gone long before the Germans know perfectly well, and
their claims of having carried the city by assault would, I dare say,
bring a smile even to the stolid face of the German soldier.

During all these operations the Germans had at least five shells to
the Russians, one, and but for this great superiority they never
would have pushed back either the line of the Narew or the Cholm-
Lublin line. Russia could not convert her resources into ammunition,
and Germany, who for forty years has lived for this day, could. To
this fact she owes her capture of Warsaw. The Allies may be assured
that Russia stayed until the last minute and the last shell, and then
extricated herself from an extremely dangerous position, leaving the
enemy to pounce on the empty husk of a city from which had been
taken every movable thing of military value. The defence of and final
escape from Warsaw is one of the most spectacular and courageous
bits of warfare that history presents, and undoubtedly the fair-
minded German admits it in his own heart regardless of the
published statements of the Staff.

Siberians leaving the last trench before Warsaw.

 CONCLUSION

A batch of German prisoners captured during the retreat from Warsaw.

 CHAPTER XXV
CONCLUSION

Dated:
Petrograd,
September 2, 1915.

A great deal has happened since the Fall of Warsaw which one
must regret, but at the same time the incidents or disasters
must be viewed in their proper perspective. The loss of Kovno,
Novo-Georgievsk and many other positions are all unfortunate, but
must I think be taken as by-products of the loss of Warsaw. With
these enormous extended fronts which modern war presents for the
same time, there always develop certain points on the line which
may be called keystones. In the Galician campaign, the Dunajec line
and Gorlice was the keystone. Once this was pulled out and a
number of corps eliminated, the whole vast line from the Vistula to
the Bukovina was thrown into a state of oscillation. Once the
withdrawal of one army started, the whole line, even to the Warsaw
Front, was affected. Armies such as the Bukovina army, which was
actually advancing for ten days after the first attack began hundreds
of miles away, first halted and finally had to come back to maintain
the symmetry of the whole. A great Front, changing over hundreds
of versts, means that the whole line can stop only when the weakest
unit can stop. A chain is no stronger than its weakest link and the
same is roughly true of a Front.
We saw this clearly in Galicia. It has been apparent to every one that
Warsaw was the keystone of the campaign in Poland. Once Warsaw
was given up under the conditions which then existed, everything
that has happened could have been foreseen. It was clear to all on
this Front who had followed these movements closely, that the next
line would be far in the rear, and that when the general change of
Front came, many places would have to be sacrificed. Novo-
Georgievsh as a matter of course was doomed. Its function was to
protect the flank of the Warsaw defences. It actually held out for
two weeks after Warsaw was abandoned, and this delay to the
Germans enabled the Russians to get their army clear of a
dangerously active pursuit. Fortresses in modern war must, as many
believe, be regarded as checks to the mobility of an enemy, rather
than as permanent blocks to his progress. Noro-Georgievsh was this,
and certainly justified the loss of the garrison and the cost of its
construction. Liége is a still better example. Certainly no fortress can
withstand modern big guns, and if by their sacrifice they play their
part in the game, they have more than served their ends. To hold on
to a fortress with a large garrison only magnifies its importance,
creates a bad moral effect when it falls, and entails the loss of a field
army. Perhaps the Austrian conduct of Przemysl will become the
historic warning in future wars as what not to do with fortresses.
From an extremely intimate contact of the terrain, I felt certain that
the next jump from Warsaw would be Brest-Litowsk. I had visited
that place five or six times and felt equally sure that if the Germans
made a definite bid for it, it would not be defended. The Russians
knew this, and in the army there was no keen disappointment at its
loss; for I think no one who knew conditions expected that there
would be a big battle there, though many believed that the enemy
would never try seriously to go further. That they have done so is
looked upon by many as a mistake of the Germans. Time only can
tell. The Russians are now on the move to another line. The enemy
may continue to follow, but in this district one does not see any
point the capture of which can have any great benefit which they
could ensure before winter sets in. The only result which can
seriously assist them is the capture of Petrograd, and even this
would not, I believe, insure a peace with Russia.

Refugees on the road to Brest-Litovsk.

As a matter of fact it seems to the writer pretty certain that the

enemy will not reach half way to Petrograd before the winter sets in,
and after that its capture is increasingly unlikely. Once one has left
the Front one obtains more accurate news as to the situation on this
line of battle from the foreign papers than from any other source. In
Petrograd, in civilian circles, there is great pessimism as to the
military situation, but this is not shared by those who are in the
confidence of the highest authorities. The only danger that seriously
and immediately menaces the Russians is rapidly passing away. It
was dangerous because it was insidious. It is certainly worth
discussion.

It was of course to be expected that the moment the Russian Armies

left Warsaw and the entire line began to retire on new positions,
there should be a period of great ambiguity. For several weeks the
armies were in constant movement, and from day to day their exact
positions were uncertain. As they went back, they obviously left
many towns and positions behind them, with the result that for
weeks the Germans have been having a continuous celebration over
their advances. During this period very little news was available in
Petrograd, which at the best is pessimistic and quick to jump at
conclusions of disaster. There is here, as all the world knows, an
enormous German influence, and whenever the military situation is
in the least ambiguous, there start immediately in a thousand
different quarters reports of disaster which in an hour are all over
Petrograd. That these reports originate from German sympathizers is
hardly questioned, and that the whole propaganda is well organized
is equally certain.

Roll call during the retreat from Warsaw. All that was left of them.

The past two weeks has found Petrograd in a receptive mood for
gloomy news, and inasmuch as nothing of a favourable nature has
come from the Russian Army, the German propaganda of insidious
and subtle rumours and reports has run through the city like a
prairie fire after a drought. Three main themes have been worked up
and circulated for all that they would stand. It was said first that
there was lack of harmony among the Allies, and that the Russian
high authorities were not satisfied with the conduct of the war in the
West. The corollary of this of course was that without harmony the
cause was lost. Next came the assertion that the army was
demoralized, and had lost hope and therefore wanted peace. Then
the shortage of ammunition was magnified until half the gullible
population were almost willing to believe that the army were fighting
with pitchforks and shotguns. Out of all this came the assertion that
peace was inevitable and that the Germans would take Petrograd.
For a week or more these topics circulated and grew with such
alarming rapidity that at last the Government was obliged to take
notice of the propaganda, which was finally squelched by a
statement issued to The Times and the Russian Press by M. Serge
Sazonov, the distinguished and clever minister of Foreign Affairs.

In this interview the Russian statesman, speaking for the

Government, made a categorical denial of the slanders against the
Government and the Russian people. He stated without reservation
that there was not now, nor had there ever been, a lack of harmony
between the military or civil authorities of the Allies, and announced
that the Russian Government not only approved of, but had implicit
faith in the programme of the Allies in the West. He then discussed
the munitions question, and asserted that all steps were being taken
to fill depletions in all branches of the army requirements, and lastly
he stated once and for ever that there would be no independent
peace with Germany while a single German soldier remained on
Russian soil and that the war would continue even if the
Government were obliged to retire to the heart of Russia and the
contest continued for years to come. This statement has had an
immediate effect on the local panic-mongers here, and for the
moment there is a lull in the German propaganda.
 Resting during the retreat from Warsaw.

In the meantime it is becoming obvious that the Germans in spite of

their following up of the retiring Russians are not likely to achieve
any successes which can immediately affect the political situation. If
they take Riga and Grodno, and even Vilna, they have done their
worst for some months to come, and one cannot see what they can
accomplish further before winter sets in. If the campaign at this
stage were in June one might feel apprehensive of Petrograd, but
under the most favourable conditions it is difficult to see how the
Germans can get even halfway here before November. By that time
they will be on the verge of the winter with the ground freezing so
deeply that intrenching is difficult, if not impossible, and every
advance must be made with terrific losses. Their attempts to
conduct warfare in Poland (a much milder climate) in winter, are too
recent a memory to lead one to believe they will repeat it here. It
will be remembered that their advance on the Bzura-Rawka line
froze up when winter came, and the sacrifice of thousands did not
advance them materially at that point in spite of their most
determined efforts. I think one may say, then, that what the
Germans cannot accomplish before November they will not attempt
until Spring. The pessimism and hopelessness of Petrograd seem to
be on the wane, and the reports from the Front now arriving do not
indicate either demoralization or despair in the army.

Probably one must expect retirements and rearguard actions for

some weeks to come. Ultimately the Russians will settle down on
some new line from which it is extremely unlikely that they can be
driven before the winter sets in. One hesitates to make any
prophecies, as conditions change so rapidly that it is always
dangerous to do so, but perhaps it is safe to say that with the
coming of the winter and the definite lull in the campaign which will
follow, the Russians will have passed their crisis. Given four months
of rest and recuperation we shall have an entirely new situation in
the beginning of next year which will present an entirely new
problem. It will really mean the starting of a new war with new
objectives and practically with a new and re-equipped army.

There may be those who are disappointed, but history, I believe, will
conclude that this summer campaign of the Russians has been the
greatest factor so far in the war making for the ultimate victory of
the Allies. For nearly four months Germany has been drained of her
best. Men and resources have been poured on this Front since May
regardless of cost. Autumn approaches with the armies in being,
undemoralized and preparing to do it all over again. In the
meantime the Allies are preparing to begin on the West, or at least it
is generally so believed. When they do at last start, Germany will for
months be occupied in protecting herself, and will probably be
unable to act so vigorously here. If Russia gets over the period of
the next sixty days, she will be safe until Spring, and by that time
she will without doubt be able to take up an offensive in her turn.
Wounded returning to Warsaw.
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