I Research Methods in Education — Study Notes Lesson 1: Introduction to Educational Research © What is Research? Research is a careful, organized process used to find new knowledge or solve problems. It is ‘© Systematic — follows step-by-step procedures * Objective — based on facts, not personal opinions * Scientific ~ relies on evidence and logic Definitions: © Oxford Dictionary: ‘A systematic investigation into the study of materials or sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions.” * Kerlinger (1975): “A systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypothesis, © Leedy (1974): Research is a way of thinking—what to study, how to gather data, and how to understand what the data tells us. @ Example: A teacher wants to know why students are disengaged in online learning and conducts surveys and observations to find solutions. © Why Do We Do Research in Education? Solve real classroom problems © Improve teaching and learning © Support curriculum development © Create education policies ‘* Enhance student and teacher performance @ Example: A principal may conduct action research to reduce dropout rates in secondary schools. * Types of Knowledge 1. Explicit — Clearly stated (e.9., in textbooks) 2. Implicit — Implied, not directly stated 3. Tacit Personal experience-based; hard to express ‘Flash Fact: Tact knowledge is gained through practice, not theory© How We Acquire Knowledge Method Explanation Belief Based on tradition or culture Intuition Gut feeling without evidence Authority From experts or institutions Empiricism — From personal experience Rationalism Logical reasoning Scientific Using data and experiments © Most educational research uses scientit ic, empirical, and rational methods. * Characteristics of Good Research Begins with a clear, focused problem ‘Systematic and logical Based on evidence Verifiable and repeatable Can be generalized and modified © Common Mistake: Starting without a proper problem leads to poor outcomes ¢ Research Paradigms Paradigm Features Used in Positivism Objective truth; numeric data Quantitative Interpretivism Subjective experiences; Qualitative meaning-based Pragmatism Practical, mixed-methods approach Mixed @ Example: A pragmatic study may use both surveys (quantitative) and interviews (qualitative).* Positivism vs Interpretivism Aspect Positivism Interpretivism View of realty Fixed and Socially constructed measurable Approach Deductive Inductive Data type Numeric Words, meaning Example Experiments, surveys Interviews, methods observations © Tp: Positivism = stats + testing; Interpretivism = meaning + context * Research Strategies «Quantitative — Uses stats and measurable data © Qualita /e — Explores experiences and meanings ‘ed Methods - Combines both Lesson 1 Summary Term Key Point Research ‘Systematic search for knowledge Purpose Solve education problems Knowledge Types Explicit, Implicit, Tacit Paradigms Positivism, Interpretivism, Pragmatism Strategies Quantitative, Qualitative, MixedLesson 2: Research Designs © What is a Research Design? A blueprint or plan of how research is conducted. It includes: © What, when, where, how, and whom to study * Categories of Research Design 4. Non-Experimental 3. Applied (Action Research) © Non-Experimental Designs Historical ‘Studies past events using documents or records ® Example: History of female education in Sri Lanka Descriptive © Describes current phenomena (e.g., surveys, case studies) Developmental Studies changes over time ‘© Cross-sectional: Different groups at once © Longitudinal: Same group over time Correlational «Examines relationships between variables (no cause-effect) Ethnographic In-depth study of cultures/groups Grounded Theory ‘* Builds new theory from data (used when no theory exists) Gl Experimental Designs Used to test cause-effect relationships by manipulating variables. Type Description Pre-experimental Weak design, no control group True experimental Randomized control + experimental groups Quasi-experimenta No random assignment, but has controlicomparison 1 ‘group+ Variables: Independent: Manipulated (.g., teaching method) © Dependent: Measured (e.g., test score) © Applied Design — Action Research Used by educators to solve practical classroom problems. @ Example: A teacher tests new reading strategies to help struggling students © Stops: Plan — Act -» Observe -» Reflect Lesson 2 Summary Design Type Purpose Examples Historical Study past Education reform history Descriptive Current facts Surveys, case studies Experimental Cause-effect Now teaching method impact Correlational Find relationships Study time vs test scores Action Solve real-world problems Low attendance Research improvementLesson 3: The Research Process © What is It? A step-by-step guide for conducting research effectively and ethically. Key Steps 1. Identify the Problem © Clear, focused, researchable ® Ex: Why are rural students underperforming? 2, Review Literature © Understand past research © Find gaps and build framework 3. Ethical Considerations © Get consent © Ensure no harm or deception © Respect participant rights 4, Research Proposal Writing © Explains what, why, and how youll study © Includes: Title, background, aims, research questions, methodology, timeline, references @ Hypotheses Type Meaning Null (Hs) No effect or difference Alternative (H:) There is a difference Directional Specifies direction (1 or |) Non-directional Shows difference without direction ‘@ Example: “Students using tech score higher than those who don't"Lesson 3 Summary Step Problem Literature Ethics Proposal Hypothesis What to Do Choose issue worth investigating Leam from others Protect participants Write your research plan Predict outcomesLesson 4: Research Tools and Sampling @ Research Tools Used to collect data in a study. Tool Use Questionnaires Gather standard responses from many Interviews Explore opinions, deeper meanings Observations Record behavior directly Tests Measure knowledge or skill Scales (e.g. Likert) Assess attitudes or beliefs Documents Use existing records © Choose tools that match your research design, * Questionnaire Tips * Avoid complex, leading questions * Choose open or closed format Pilot test before use © Types of Data Type Example Quantitative Numbers, scores Qualitative Words, feelings * Sampling Sampling = choosing a small group (sample) from a larger group (population). Term Meaning Population Entire group you want to study Sample ‘Subgroup you actually study ‘Sampling Frame List of population Target Population Ideal group for generalizationOD Probal Method Description ity Sampling (Random) Simple Random Everyone has equal chance Systematic Every Nth person Stratified Grouped by traits, then sampled Cluster Entire groups selected Muttistage ‘Combination of sampling techniques © Non-Probability Sampling (Non-Random) Method Description Purposive Specific people with criteria Convenienc Easily accessible people e Snowball Referrals from existing participants Quota Like stratified but not random Lesson 4 Summary Concept Meaning Tool Used to collect data Quantitative Data Measurable (e.g., test marks) Qualitative Data Descriptive (e.g., opinions) ‘Sampling Select group to represent others Probability Random selection Non-Probabilily Based on access or purposeLesson 5: Quantitative Data Analysis ¢ What Is Quantitative Data Analysis? Itis the process of organizing, summarizing, and interpreting numerical data using mathematical and statistical methods. It helps: © Describe patterns Test hypotheses ‘* Make comparisons and predictions ® Example: Measuring average test scores of students across three schools. © Types of Measurement Scales Scale Description Example Nominal Categories without order Gender, Religion Ordinal Ordered categories Rank in class (1st, 2nd...) Interval Equal gaps, no true zero. Temperature (°C) Ratio Equal gaps, has absolute Height, exam marks, weight zero © Tip: Most educational data (scores, age) are ratio scale. @ Descriptive Statistics Used to summarize and describe a data set. Measure Explanation Example Mean Average value Total + No. of items Median Middle value Useful for skewed data Mode Most frequent value Good for categorical data Range Highest—Lowest value Spread of marks Standard Deviation (SD) How spread out values. Higher SD = more variability are ‘+ Tip: Use mean when data is symmetrical; median when data is skewed. Inferential Statistics Helps researchers draw conclusions from a sample and generalize to a population.@ Common Inferential Tests Test Purpose Example Use Test (Compare two group means Boys vs Girls in math scores ANOVA Compare more than two group 3 teaching methods and their means impact Chi-Square Compare frequencies across Gender vs participation in Test groups activities Correlation (r) Measures strength of relationship Study time and exam scores @ Correlation Values: © +1.0= perfect positive © 1.0 = perfect negative © 0=no relationship @ Hypothesis Testing Recap Term Meaning Null Hypothesis (Ho) No effect or relationship (status quo) Alternative Hypothesis (H:) There is an effect or difference p-value Probability result is by chance (p < 0.05 = significant) @ If p< 0.05, reject the null hypothesis, © Example Scenario Research Question: Does teaching method affect student scores? © Method A: 60, 62, 63 * Method B: 70, 72, 74 © Use t-test or ANOVA to compare means © Ifp <0.05, result is significant ® Statistical Software Software Use SPSS Popular for social science data analysis Used for technical/industrial data MLwiN Used for multi-level statistical modeling Excel Basic analysis (mean, SD, graphs) You don't need to know how to operate them—just understand why they are used.Lesson 5 Summary Term Meaning Descriptive Stats Mean, median, mode, SD, range Inferential Stats T-test, ANOVA, Chi-square, correlation Hypothesis Testing Decide if diference is real or random Statistical Software Helps organize and analyze numerical data + Exam Tip: Be ready to match the correct statistical test tothe research design and questionLesson 6: Qualitative Data Analysis What Is Qualitative Data? Qualitative data refers to non-numerical information like’ © Words © Ideas © Experiences © Observations © Emotions ©@ Example: Students' feelings about classroom discipline policies shared during interviews. © What Is Qualitative Data Analysis? Itis the process of: © Organizing and interpreting text-based data * _Identitying patterns, themes, and meanings © Descri ing the social reality of participants © Often inductive (builds theory from the data) @ Key Features of Qualitative Analysis Feature Description Non-stati 1 ica Focuses on meanings over numbers Flexible No fixed steps; adapts as data evolves Contextual _Looks at data in real-life settings Interpretive Involves the researcher's understanding Subjective Involves human interpretation¢ Common Qualitative Analysis Approaches © Thematic Analysis * Most widely used method in educational research © Focuses on identifying themes or patterns Steps: 1. Familiarization with data 2. Generating initial codes 3. Searching for themes 4, Reviewing themes 5. Defining and naming themes 6. Writing the report ®@ Example: Analyzing student interviews to identify themes like “teacher support,” “stress,” or ‘peer relationships” G Grounded Theory ‘© Used to develop a theory from raw data Useful when no existing theory explains the topic Steps: © Open coding -+ Categorization —+ Constant comparison —+ Theory development ® Example: Developing a theory on how students handle academic failure from interviews. @ Tools for Qualitative Data Analysis Tool Purpose Manual Coding Reading and highlighting themes on paper NVivo Software to organize, code, and visualize data Field Notes Notes taken during observations or interviews © You don't need to use NVivo in the exam—just know that it helps manage large sets of qualitative data,@ Data Collection Tools (Revisited) Tool Description Interview Face-to-face, open-ended conversation Observation Watch and record behaviors in real settings Document Analyze reports, diaries, logs Review Focus Groups Group discussions for diverse views Coding - The Gore of Qualitative Analysis Coding = Breaking dala into meaningful chunks Each “code” represents a concept, idea, or recurring phrase @ Example: Code the phrase ‘feel lef out in class” as “social isolation.” @ Inductive vs Deductive Approach Approach Meaning Example Inductive Start with data, build theory Thematic analysis, grounded theory Deductive Start with existing theory Confirming a known framework ‘®@ Common Challenges * Interpretation may be subjective © Time-consuming and iterative © Requires familiarity with context and culture Use strategies like peer review, member checking, or triangulation to increase trustworthiness. Lesson 6 Summary Concept Meaning Thematic Analysis Identify recurring themes in text Grounded Theory —_ Build a new theory from data NVivo Software for organizing qualitative data Coding Labe 1g text segments with meaningful tags Inductive Approach Data —> Codes —+ Categories — Themes —> Theory + Exam Tip: You may be asked to describe how you would analyze interview data—mention coding, theme-building, and tools like NVivo or field notesLesson 7: Research Wri g and Dissemination ® What Is Research Writing? Research writing is the process of presenting your research in a structured, clear, and academic way. It involves: ‘© Organizing your findings © Backing claims with evidence ‘* Communicating clearly to the academic audience °®@ Example: Writing a report on how student performance improved after a new teaching method. * Characteristics of Good Research Writing © Clarity — Easy to understand Conciseness ~ No unnecessary details Logical flow ~ Smooth transitions between sections Evidence-based ~ Backed by data and literature Properly cited — Using correct referencing style Original - Free from plagiarism » Structure of a Standard Research Report Sei Deser Title Page Title, name, institution, date Abstract Brief summary (150-250 words) of objectives, method, findings Introduction Background, problem, objectives, research questions Literature Review Summary of relevant past studies and theoretical framework Methodology Design, participants, tools, sampling, data collection Results Presentation of findings (charts, tables, explanations) Discussion Interpretation of results, comparison with past studies Conclusion ‘Summary, limitations, suggestions for future research References List of sources (APA format) Appendices Questionnaires, raw data (optional) © Not at reports require ail sections—follow your university’ format if given.@ Academic Writing Tips © Avoid informal language * Use academic vocabulary (e.g,, “the data suggests” instead of I think") ‘© Use third person and passive voice (e.9., ‘was conducted") © Define technical terms © Write in paragraphs with topic sentences '& APA Referencing (7th Edition) Citation In-Text Reference List Format Type Example Book (Creswell, Creswell, J. W. (2014). Educational research. 2014) Journal (Cohen, 2009) Cohen, M. L. (2009). Choral singing... Journal of Article Correctional Education, 60, 52-65. Website (UNESCO, —_ UNESCO. (2022), Global education report. 2022) @ Always list full references in alphabetical order on a separate page. @ What Is Plagiarism? Plagiarism is using someone else’s work without proper credit. Examples: © Copy-pasting without citation © Rewording a source but not citing © Using someone's ideas or data as your own. @ Tip: Use plagiarism detection tools and cite all sources. © How to Avoid Plagiarism * Use quotation marks for di sot quotes © Paraphrase properly (rephrase in your own words) © Always cite the source © Keep track of all references while writing © Even paraphrased content needs a citation!} Dissemination of Research Aer finishing your research, is important to share your findings with others. Method Description Research Report Submitted to university or supervisor Conference Paper Journal Article Policy Brief Online Sharing Presented at academic gatherings Published in peer-reviewed journals For stakeholders and decision-makers Blogs, research websites, digital libraries @ Example: Publishing an article on how digital fools affect student writing skils in a teacher journal, Lesson 7 Summary Topic Research Report APA Referencing Plagiarism ‘Academic Writing Dissemination Key Points Formal, structured, academic document Required format for citing sources Must be avoided—cite all ideas and texts Clear, formal, third-person style Sharing findings with public or scholarly audiences: »@ Exam Tip: Know the parts of a research report and how to cite using APA style.