CHEMICAL BONDS

1. The Atom

NUCLEUS SHELL

Very small compared to the total Area where the electrons

volume. It’s got positive net charge are orbiting around the
nucleus in different
orbitals
PROTONS

Mass similar to neutrons.

NEUTRONS Charge: + 1.6·10-19 C
Discovered by E.
Mass similar to protons. Rutherford
No net charge
Discovered by Chadwick

ELECTRONS
Mass nearly 2000 times smaller than protons
Charge: - 1.6·10-19 C. It’s an elemental
particle
Discovered by JJ. Thomson
2. Z and A
Each atom is identified by its atomic number (Z) and its mass number (A), which give information
about the number of particles that are in its nucleus:
NET CHARGE
• The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom. (nothing is written if
Z=number of e-)

• The mass number is the total number of protons

and neutrons in an atom.

Isotopes are atoms of a given element that have the same atomic number
(number of protons), but a different mass number (because they have a
different number of neutrons).

SYMBO
Z A # protons # neutrons # e- Net charge
L
O2- 8 15 8 7 10 -2
15
8

Na+ 11 23 11 12 10 +1
23
11
39
19 K 19 39 19 20 19 0
3. Periodic Table
METALS
-Metallic luster.
-Solid at room temperature (but mercury)
-Malleable (they can be moulded into sheets) and
ductile (they can be drawn into threads).
-Good conductors of heat and electricity
-Tendency to form positive ions.

SEMIMETALS
-Solids at room temperature.
-Form positive ions with difficulty.

NON METALS
At room temperature there are gases, liquids and solids. Poor conductors of heat and electricity. Tend to
form negative ions.

NOBLE GASES .
They are inert, do not react with any element. They do not form ions.

HYDROGEN .
Not have properties characteristic of any other group of elements.
4. Electron Configuration

The octect rule states that all atoms tend to complete their outer valence shell with
eight electrons, with the exception of helium, which can only hold a maximum of two
electrons.

Non-metals get their eight electrons by Metals get their eight electrons by losing
gaining the few missing electrons in their the few electrons in their last shell.
last shell. The more voluminous the atom (the less
The less bulky the atom (the greater the electrons are retained by the nucleus) and
attractive force of the nucleus) and the the fewer electrons it has in the last shell,
greater the number of electrons in the the greater its reactivity.
last shell, the greater its reactivity.
Noble gases have full outer electron shells. They have eight electrons in their valence shell:
ns2np6. Helium is the exception in that it only has two valence electrons: 2s 2. Noble gases
occur in nature in the form of isolated atoms and don't naturally combine with other
chemical elements. The electron configuration of noble gases is very stable. The way a
chemical element tries to attain the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas in the
periodic table is what explains its chemical behaviour.
 4.CARBON GROUP
1.ALKALI METALS 5.PNICTOGENS
2.ALKALINE EARTH METALS 6.CHALCOGENS
TRANSITION METALS 7.HALOGENS
3.BORON GROUP 8.NOBLE GASES
5. Chemical Bonds
Atoms tend to join together via chemical bonds because the joined system has less energy than the
atoms do separately. This makes them more stable. This bonding is called chemical bonding.

H2 molecular hydrogen; O3= ozone; NO= nitrogen monoxide; SO3= sulfur trioxide: KCl= potassium chloride
F

CHEMICAL BOND: set of interactions that hold atoms or molecules together to give rise to more stable
structures than the starting atoms or molecules.
The cause of bonding is the energetic economy, the search for stability. Atoms tend to acquire the
structure of the nearest noble gas (see octet rule). To do so, they play with the electrons in their valence
shell. This is easy to see in elements with only s and p electrons.

TYPES OF INTERATOMIC OR INTRAMOLECULAR BONDS: They are those that hold atoms together to give
rise to a molecule or other type of structure superior to the isolated atom.
Types:

-ionic bond: between metal and non-metal.

covalent bond: between non-metals

-metallic bond: between metals (most commonly between atoms of the same metal)
6. Ionic Bond
A metal tends to lose e-- ion + or CATION
A non-- metal tends to gain e-- ion - or ANION
When a metal is in the presence of a non-- metal there is a cession of e- from one to the other, forming
the respective ions. These ions of opposite sign will be joined by electrostatic forces of attraction the
ionic bond is formed between ions of different sign. The number of e- that are gained/lost = ionic
valence. The ions are grouped together forming an ionic crystal.

# negative charges = # positive charges

IONIZATION REACTIONS: e.g. bond between Ca and F

Ca – 2e-  Ca2+
2·( F + 1 e-  F-) _
Ca + 2F  CaF2 calcium difluoride
 PROPERTIES INTERPRETATION

The strong electrostatic attraction produced in

They are solids at room temperature, with
ionic compounds extends in all directions.
high melting and boiling points.
it takes a lot of energy to break the crystal
They are hard, difficult to scratch.
lattice.

When the crystal is struck, the ions are

displaced and those of equal charge face each
They fracture when hit, forming smaller other, repelling each other.
crystals.

The water molecules can attract and separate

In general, they dissolve in water.
the ions, breaking up the ionic network.

They do not conduct electric current in When the ions pass to the liquid state, they
solid state, but are conductors when acquire mobility, which makes the passage of
molten or in solution. electric current possible
7. Covalent Bond
This bond keeps NON METALS atoms together. e- are shared. Covalent compounds can be:
- molecules: e.g. hydrogen (H2), water, oxygen (O2), ammonia. Atoms are strongly bonded but the links
among molecules are weak.
- solid covalents or covalent crystals: the covalent bond keeps atoms together in every direction, crystal
lattices are made and they are very stable E.g.: quartz (SiO2), diamond and grafite
LEWIS DIAGRAM (every pair of e- is represented by a line)
 Molecular substances
PROPERTIES INTERPRETATION

The strength of the bond between atoms is

Low melting and boiling points, so they are
great, but the force that holds the molecules
gases or liquids at room temperature.
together is weak.

They do not dissolve (or dissolve only There are no ions in their structure capable of
slightly) in water. being attracted to water molecules.

There are no electric beds in their structure

They do not conduct electric current
(sometimes charges are formed when reacting
(some do so only weakly).
with water).

COVALENT CRYSTALS
PROPERTIES INTERPRETATION

At room temperature they are very hard The bond among the atoms is very strong so it
solids with high melting points. takes a lot of enery to break the crystal lattice.

There are no ions in their structure capable of

Do not dissolve in water
being attracted by water molecules.

They do not conduct electric current. There are no electric charges in its structure
7.1 Intermolecular Forces
Molecules can form bonds due to the force of attraction between their dipoles. These intermolecular
forces are:
- Hydrogen bonds (H bonded to a very small and electronegative atom-> N, O, F). This intermolecular
force explains the abnormally high melting points of water, ammonia and hydrogen fluoride compared
with hydrides of other elements in the same group.
- Van der Waals forces. They are weaker than H-bonds and exists between all the molecules.
8. Metallic Bond
Metallic elements usually consist of atoms containing one, two or three valence electrons. These
electrons are weakly attracted to the nucleus, so they can move
and be freed from it easily. According to the free electron
theory, when metal atoms come together, their outer shells
overlap and their valence electrons become free to move. We
say that these electrons are delocalised, as they are no longer
associated with a particular atom. This bond keeps atoms of
metals together. It is produced by the attraction of cations of
metals that share a electron cloud.
Metallic atoms give away electrons to have 8 e- in the last layer, octet rule, becoming positive ions
(cations).

■ Solids at room temperature,The metallic

except lattice High
mercury. is formed
boilingbyand melting
cations
points. The metallic bond is strong it isperfectly
not easy arranged in a fixed
to separate the atoms it
joins. position and immersed in a kind of
■ They are ductile, malleable and “seahard.
or gas”Theof free
free movement
and delocalizedof electrons
prevents repulsion between positive ions when they move, so they may
electrons.
form strings or sheets without breaking
 ACTIVITIES
1. Given the following elements: X +3 , Z and Y find:
122
51
80
35
25
12

A. number of protons, neutrons and electrons; B. electronic configuration C. What type of bond will Z
and Y form? Why?

2. What is the electronic configuration of the last level of the alkali earth metals?

3. Using Lewis notation represent the bonds of the molecules of the following substances: bromine,
sulfur oxide, phosphorus trichloride, sodium sulfide. Indicate, in each case, the type(s) of bond(s).

4. Given the elements of atomic numbers 8, 16 and 19, respectively, determine:

(a) their situation in the periodic system. b) The electronic configuration of their most stable ion.
c) Type of bond between elements A and B and two characteristics of this type of compound.

5. Carbon and oxygen are sometimes bonded together; however, they both have a tendency to
capture electrons. How do you think they stay bonded?

6. Can we describe SiO2 as a molecular covalent compound? Why?

7. What will chlorine and fluorine compounds with potassium be like? Can you predict whether they will
be soluble in potassium?
8. Name six elements in which the shell containing the valence electrons of their atoms is complete,
i.e., it is a shell that neither admits nor yields electrons.
9. The arrangement in space of cations and anions, forming a giant three-dimensional structure, gives
rise to the formation of a...................

10. Carbon dioxide, CO2 is a gas formed in the combustion and respiration of living things. In its
molecule the carbon atom is the central atom, being bonded to two oxygen atoms, how many pairs of
electrons are shared in this bond.

11. What is the main characteristic of noble gases from the chemical point of view? Can you explain
why?

12. Differences between ionic and covalent bonding.

13. Why are metals conduct electricity and heat and ionic crystals do not?

14. Explain how the bond between sulfur atoms (Z=16) and potassium atoms (Z=19) would be formed.
What will be the formula of the compound formed?

15. Reason what the covalent compound formed by carbon and hydrogen would be like.
What formula do you think this compound should have?

16. Complete the text with the following words: atoms, lose, configuration, electrons, electron, energy,
stable, noble, octet, rule, valence.
....................... form bonds because in this way, they lower their ....................... and they are
more....................... In the bond, the atoms gain, ....................... or share ....................... of the outer
shell, achieving the ........................ ........................ of the nearest .......................gas. This is called the
....................... because there are usually eight electrons in the ....................... shell.

17 Complete the following table:

Pure substance
Property O2 KF Fe
Soluble in water No (little)
Molecule/Crystal lattice Crystal lattice
Melting point Low
Conducts electricity Yes (solid state)