DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SOLAR AGRO SPRAYER SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT

Submittedby

IRFANTAUFIQ S 8115U22ME015
KILASHVISWANATHAN B 8115U22ME021
KOWSSHIGAN KS 8115U22ME028
SATHYANAND R 8115U22ME048

inpartialfulfillmentfortheawardofthedegree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In

MECHANICALENGINEERING

K.RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
SAMAYAPURAM, TRICHY– 621112

ANNA
UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI - 600 025

JUNE2025
DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SOLAR AGRO SPRAYER SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT

Submittedby

IRFANTAUFIQ S 8115U22ME015
KILASHVISWANATHAN B 8115U22ME021
KOWSSHIGAN KS 8115U22ME028
SATHYANAND R 8115U22ME048

inpartialfulfillmentfortheawardofthedegree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

K.RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
SAMAYAPURAM,TRICHY– 621112

ANNAUNIVERSITY
CHENNAI - 600 025

JUNE2025

i
 K.RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS
) UNDER
ANNAUNIVERSITY,CHENNAI

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SOLAR
AGRO SPRAYAER SYSTEM”is a Bonafide work carried out by Mr.IRFANTAUFIQ SReg.
No 8115U22ME015, Mr.KILASHVISWANATHAN B Reg. No 8115U22ME021, Mr.
KOWSSHIGAN KS RegNo8115U22ME028, Mr.SATHYANAND R
RegNo8115U22ME048,under my direct supervision

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.H.RAMAKRISHNAN,M.E.,Ph.D Dr.K.CHELLAMUTHU,B.E.,M.E.,Ph.D

HeadoftheDepartment Supervisor,
MechanicalEngineeringDepartment, Assistantprofessor,
K. Ramakrishnan College of Engineering. MechanicalEngineering Department,
Tiruchirappalli - 621 112 K.Ramakrishnan College of Engineering,

Tiruchirapalli- 6211 112

SubmittedfortheENDSEMSTERexaminationheldon /06/2025

SIGNATUREOFINTERNAL SIGNATUREOFEXTERNAL

EXAMINER EXAMINER

NAME: NAME:

DATE: DATE:

ii
 K.RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OFENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
UNDER
ANNAUNIVERSITY, CHENNAI

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

I declare that to the best of my knowledge the work reported here has
been composed solely by myself and that it has not been in whole or in part in any
previous application for a degree.

Submitted for the project Viva-Voce held at K.Ramakrishnan College of

Engineering on

SIGNATUREOFTHECANDIDATE

iii
 K.RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
SAMAYAPURAM, TRICHY– 621112

VISION&MISSION OF THE COLLEGE

“To achieve aprominent position among the top technical institutions”

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION

 Tobestowstandardtechnicaleducationparexcellencethroughstate-of-the- art
infrastructure, competent faculty and high ethical standards.

 Tonurtureresearchandentrepreneurialskillsamongthestudentsincutting
edge technologies.

 To provide education that can be used as a tool to transform the students.

iv
 K.RAMAKRISHNANCOLLEGEOF
ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
SAMAYAPURAM,TRICHY– 621112

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

 To provideeminent Mechanical Engineers to society and

industries through quality technical education and research.

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

 To impart quality professional education through state-of-

the- art infrastructure and resources.

 To motivate students and faculty to undertake research and

development activities in the thrust areas of mechanical engineering.

 To carryout collaborative projects with industries and academics

with fullest potential.

v
 K.RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
SAMAYAPURAM,TRICHY– 621112

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:(PEOs)

PEO1:HaveSuccessfulcareersinindustriesoroptforhigherstudiesandresearch.

PEO2:Analyze, synthesize and design mechanical and allied products addressing

PEO 3: Exhibit technical expertise, communication skills, teamwork with

Professionalism with ethical values.

PROGRAMSPECIFICOUTCOMES(PSOs)

PSO1: Identify, formulate and solve engineering problems in three core streams of
Mechanical Engineering, i.e., design engineering, thermal and fluids engineering and
manufacturing engineering

PSO2: Design, develop, test and implement energy efficient systems for required
engineering applications.

vi
 K.RAMAKRISHNANCOLLEGEOF
ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
SAMAYAPURAM,TRICHY– 621112

PROGRAM OUT COMES(PO’s)

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineeringfundamentals,andengineeringspecializationtothesolutionof
complex engineering problems.
2. Problemanalysis:Identify,formulate,reviewresearchliterature,andanalyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

problemsanddesignsystemcomponentsorprocessesthatmeetthespecifiedneeds with
appropriate consideration for public health and safety, and the cultural, societal,
and environmental considerations

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems :Use research-based knowledge

and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation
of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

vii
6. Engineerandsociety:Applyreasoninginformedbycontextualknowledgeto
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to professional engineering practice.

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of professional

engineeringsolutionsinsocietalandenvironmentalcontexts,anddemonstratethe
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commitment to professional ethics

and responsibilities and norms of engineering practice.

9. Individualandteamwork:Functioneffectivelyasanindividual,andasamember or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings

10. Communication:Communicateeffectivelyoncomplexengineeringactivitieswith
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, making
effective presentations, and give and receiving clear instructions.

11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding

of the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work,
as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.

12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change

viii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

WethanktheAlmightyGodwithouthisblessingsitwouldnothave been
possible for us to complete our project. At this pleasing moment of having
successfully completed ourproject, we wish to convey our sincere thanks
and gratitude our management of our college and our beloved chairman
Dr. K. RAMAKRISHNAN, B.E, who provided all the facilities to us.

Wewouldliketoexpressoursincerethanks toourexecutivedirectorDr.
S. KUPPUSAMY, M.B.A., PhD., for forwarding me to do my project and
offeringadequate motivation in completing our project.
Wearealso gratefultoourprincipalDr. D.SRINIVASAN, M.E.,PhD., for his
constructive suggestions and encouragement during our project. We
wishto express our profound thanks to Dr. H.RAMAKRISHNAN,
M.E., PhD, Head of the Mechanical Engineering Department, for
providingallnecessaryfacilitiesfordoingthisprojectWewholeheartedly and
sincerely acknowledge our deep sense ofgratitude and indebtedness to
my beloved guide Dr.K. CHELLAMUTHU, B.E.,M.E.,Ph.D. Asst.
Professor, Mechanical EngineeringDepartment, for his expert guidance
andencouragement throughoutthedurationoftheproject.Weextendour
gratitude to all the facultymembers of the Mechanical Engineering
Department,

K.RAMAKRISHNANCOLLEGEOFENGINEERINGfortheirkind
helpandvaluablesupporttocompletetheprojectsuccessfully.Wewould like to
thank my parents and friends who have always been a constant source of
support in my project.

ix
 ABSTRACT

Thisprojectpresentsthedesignanddevelopmentofasolartrackingsystemintegratedwith an
RTC-controlled water pump, aimed at improving the efficiency of solar energy utilization and
automating irrigation in agricultural fields. The system uses Light Dependent Resistors
(LDRs)todetectthedirectionofsunlightandaDCgearedmotorcontrolledbyanArduinoUno to
adjust the position of the solar panel accordingly. This single-axis tracking mechanism ensures
that the panelremains aligned with the sun throughout the day, thereby increasing the amount
of solar energy captured compared to fixed panels. In addition, a Real-Time Clock (RTC)
module is used to schedule the operation of a water pump through a relay module at
predefinedtimes,suchasearlymorningandevening.Thisautomatestheirrigationprocessand
eliminates the need for manual intervention, making it especially suitable for remote and off-
grid agricultural applications. A rechargeable battery stores the solar energy, allowing the
system to operate even during cloudy weather or nighttime. The system also includes an LCD
display for real-time monitoring of time, solar panel position, and pump status. Overall, this
projectoffersacost-effective,energy-efficient,andeco-friendlysolutiontosupportsustainable
farming practices. This system provides a cost-effective, energy-efficient, and eco-friendly
solution that promotes the use of renewable energy and reduces dependency on conventional
electricity.Bycombiningsmarttrackingandautomatedirrigation,theproject demonstratesthe
potential of embedded systems and clean energy in transforming agricultural practices. It is
especially useful for rural and small-scale farmers, helping to reduce labor, optimize water
usage, and improve crop productivity. The project is modular in nature and can be further
enhancedbyaddingsoilmoisturesensors, dual-axistracking, orIoT-basedremotemonitoring,
paving the way for advanced smart farming technologies.

x
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SI. NO TITLE PAGENO.

1 Abstract x

2 Listofcontents xii

3 Listoftables xiv

4 Listoffigures xv

5 Listofsymbols xvi

xi
 LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTERNO TITLE PAGENO

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Objective 2
1.3EnvironmentalBenefits 3
1.4Energysecurity 4
2 LiteratureSurvey 6
2.1SolarCell 6
2.2AppilicationOfSolarCell 6
2.3ThreeGenerationsOfSolarCells 7

2.4SelectionOfSolarCell 9
2.5Motor 10
3 DescriptionOfEquipment 12
3.1SolarPower 12
3.2Battery 13
3.3Motor 15
3.4AnalogToDigitalConvertor 20
3.5 Amplifier 21
3.6 LDR 21
3.7CadmiumSulphideCells 23
3.8ControlUnit 24
4 DesignOfEquipmentAndDrawing 26
4.1Component 26
4.2 Drawing 28

xii
5 WorkingPrinciple 34
6 Application 36
7 Merits 38
8 Cost Estimation 39
9 Conclusion 41
9.1Conclusion 41
9.2Futurescope 42
Reference 44
Photography 45

xiii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURENO DESCRIPTION PAGENO

3.1 BatteryCircuitDiagram 13
3.2 DCMotor 19
3.3 LDRSensor 23
3.4 CadmiumSulphideCells 23
4.1 2D View Of DC Compound Motor 28
4.2 Gear Motor 29
4.3 LeadAcidCell 30
4.4 31
9V HW Battery
4.5 31
Solar Powered Agriculture
Water Pumping System With
Auto Tracking
4.6 32
12v HW Battery
4.7 SolarPanel 33

xiv
 LISTOF TABLES

TableNo. DESCRIPTION PAGENO.

1 Component 26
2 MaterialCost 39

xv
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

 D=Diameterofmotorshaft(m)

 T=torque(N)

 L=lengthofpanel(mm)

 W=Widthofpanel(mm)

xvi
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that influences Earth's
climate and weather and sustains life. Solar power is sometimes used as a synonym for
solar energy or more specifically to refer to electricity generated from solar radiation.
Since ancient times, solar energy has been harnessed for human use through a range of
technologies. Solar radiationalong withsecondarysolar resourcessuchaswind and wave
power, hydroelectricity and biomass account for the available flow of renewable energy
on Earth.

Solar energy technologies can provide electrical generation by heat engine or

photovoltaic means, space heating and cooling in active and passive solar buildings;
potable water via distillation and disinfection, day lighting, hot water, thermal energy for
cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes. Sunlight can be
converted into electricity using photovoltaic (PV), concentrating solar power (CSP), and
various experimental technologies. PV has mainly been used to power small andmedium-
sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes
powered by a photovoltaic array. The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek (phos)
meaning "light", and "voltaic", meaning electrical, from the name of the Italian physicist
Volta, after whom a unit of electrical potential, the volt, is named.

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into direct
current using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was constructed by CharlesFritts
in the 1880s. Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident
light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell
recognized the importance of this discovery.

1
 This project presents the design and fabrication of a single-axis solar tracking
systemintegratedwithanautomated irrigation systemusing an Arduino Uno. The system
utilizes LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) sensors to track sunlight and align the solar
panelaccordingly. AnRTC module isused tooperateawater pump via a relaymodule at pre-
defined times. The entire setup is powered by solar energy, making it highly suitable for
rural and remote agricultural applications. The goal is to enhance energy efficiency,
reduce water wastage,sustainable farming using low-cost, easily available components.

The increasing demand for renewable energy and sustainable agricultural practices
has led to the development of innovative technologies that optimize natural resources.
Solar energy, being one ofthe most abundant and clean energysources, is widelyused in
variousapplications, including irrigationsystems. However, theefficiencyofsolar panels is
significantly affected by their orientation relative to the sun. A fixed solar panel receives
limited sunlight throughouttheday, reducing itspoweroutput. Toovercomethis limitation,
solar tracking systemsareemployed toadjustthepanel’spositionbasedonthe sun’s
movement, ensuring maximum energy capture.

1.2 OBJECTIVE:

Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources such as sunlight

wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat which are renewable (naturally replenished). In
2006, about 18% of global final energy consumption came from renewable, with 13%
coming from traditional biomass, such as wood-burning. Hydroelectricity was the next
largest renewable source, providing 3%, followed by solar hot water/heating, which
contributed 1.3%. Modern technologies, such as geothermal energy, wind power, solar
power, and ocean energy together provided some 0.8% of final energy consumption.

Climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices, peak oil and increasing
government support are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and
commercialization. European Union leaders reached an agreement in principle in March
2007that 20 percent oftheir nations'energyshould be produced fromrenewable fuels by

2
2020, as part of its drive to cut emissions of carbon dioxide, blamed in part for global
warming. Investment capital flowing into renewable energy climbed from $80 billion in
2005 to a record $100 billion in 2006.

1.3 ENVIRONMENT ALBENEFITS

Natural energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, offer a wide
range of benefits thatmake them essential for building a sustainable future. One ofthe
primary advantages is that they are economically viable, especially over time. While
the initial investment in renewable energy systems may be moderate, the long-
termcost savings are substantialdue to low operationaland fuelcosts. Naturalenergy is
also readily available and renewable, harnessed from sources that are naturally
replenished—like sunlight, wind, and flowing water—ensuring a continuous and
sustainable supply. Unlike fossil fuels, these sources are clean and pollution-free,
producing no harmful byproducts such as carbon dioxide or sulfur emissions, which
helps in reducing air and water pollution and improving public health.

Another important benefit isthat these systemsrequire inimal maintenance due to

their simple and robust designs, particularly in solar and wind technologies. This
results in lower maintenance costs and increased reliability over time. Naturalenergy
also plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change, as it does not contribute to the
buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, thereby preventing global warming.
Furthermore, it enhances energy security by reducing dependence on imported fuels
and promotes energy access in remote areas where conventional grid electricity is
unavailable. Overall, naturalenergy supports eco-friendlydevelopment, creates green
jobs, and aligns with global goals for a cleaner, healthier planet.

Natural energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, offer a wide
range of benefits thatmake them essential for building a sustainable future. One of the
primary advantages is that they are economically viable, especially over time. While
the initial investment in renewable energy systems may be moderate, the long-
termcost savings are substantialdue to lowoperationaland fuelcosts. Naturalenergy

3
 is also readily available and renewable, harnessed from sources that are naturally
replenished—like sunlight, wind, and flowing water—ensuring a continuous and
sustainable supply. Unlike fossil fuels, these sources are clean and pollution-free,
producing no harmful byproducts such as carbon dioxide or sulfur emissions, which
helps in reducing air and water pollution and improving public health.

Another important benefit is that these systems require minimal maintenance due
to their simple and robust designs, particularly in solar and wind technologies. This
results in lower maintenance costs and increased reliabilityover time. Naturalenergy
also plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change, as it does not contribute to the
buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, thereby preventing global warming.
Furthermore, it enhances energy security by reducing dependence on imported fuels
and promotes energy access in remote areas where conventional grid electricity is
unavailable. Overall, naturalenergysupports eco-friendlydevelopment, createsgreen
jobs, and aligns with global goals for a cleaner, healthier planet.

1.4 ENERGY SECURITY:

Energy security refers to the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an

affordable price. It is a critical aspect of national development, economic stability, and
social well-being. Ensuring a stable and secure energy supply is essential for powering
industries, transportation, agriculture, and households. In today’s rapidly growing global
economy, the demand for energy is increasing, which makes energy security a toppriority
for governments and policymakers.

Traditionally, most countries have relied heavily on fossil fuels such as coal, oil,
and natural gas to meet their energy needs. However, these sources are finite, subject to
geopolitical tensions, and prone to price fluctuations. Dependence on imported fuels can
expose nations to energy crises caused by political instability, trade disputes, or supply
chain disruptions. To overcome these risks, there is a growing shift toward renewable
energy sources like solar, wind, and hydropower, which are locally available and
sustainable.

4
 Renewable energy enhances energy security by reducing dependency on foreign
oil and fossil fuels. Solar energy, in particular, provides a reliable and decentralized
energy solution, especially in rural and off-grid areas. With the increasing adoption of
technologies like solar panels, energy storage systems, and smart grids, communities and
countries can achieve greater self-reliance and resilience. Furthermore, investing in
renewable energy not only improves energy access but also supports environmental
protection and economic growth. It creates jobs, reduces carbon emissions, and promotes
innovation in the energy sector. In the context of climate change and resource depletion,
building a robust and diverse energy portfolio is vital.

Energysecurity is not just about meeting energydemands but about doing so in a

sustainable, affordable, and environmentally responsible manner. Renewable energy,
especially solar power, plays a key role in achieving long-term energy security and
supporting sustainable development goals. To further strengthen energy security, it is
important to focus on decentralized energy systems and local energy production.
Decentralized systems, such as rooftop solar panels and community-based microgrids,
reduce the burden on centralized power plants and minimize transmission losses. These
systems ensure that even in the event of natural disasters, grid failures, or fuel shortages,
local communities can maintain access to essential electricity services. In rural andremote
areas where extending the power grid is difficult and costly, renewable energy systems
provide a practical and sustainable alternative. Additionally, integrating energy storage
technologies such as batteries allows for better energy management by storing excess
power generated during the dayfor use at night or during cloudyweather. Policies that
support innovation, investment in green technologies, and public awareness further
enhance national energy security. By diversifying the energy mix and encouraging local
production, countries can reduce their vulnerability to global energy market fluctuations
and ensure a more resilient, reliable, and self-sufficient energy future.

5
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 SOLARCELL:

solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a wide area electronic device that converts solar energy
into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic is the field of technology and
researchrelatedtothe application ofsolar cells as solar energy. Sometimes the term solar
cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while
the term photovoltaic cell is used when the source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are
used to make solar modules, or photovoltaic arrays.

2.2 APPILICATIONOFSOLARCELL:

Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, have a wide range of
applications due to their ability to convert sunlight directly into electricity. One of the
most common applications is in residential and commercial power generation, where
rooftop solar panels are used to provide electricity for homes, offices, and industries,
helping reduce dependency on the grid and lower electricity bills. In rural and remote
areas, solar cells are used to power homes, schools, and health centers whereconventional
electricity is unavailable. They are also widely used in solar-powered water pumping
systems, making them highly beneficial for agricultural irrigation, especially in off-grid
regions. Solar street lighting and traffic signals are other common applications that
enhance energy efficiency in urban infrastructure. Solar cells are integral to portable
electronics like solar chargers and solar-powered lanterns, whichare useful in emergency
and disaster relief situations. In the field of transportation, solar-powered vehicles and
boats are emerging technologies that showcase the potential of solar energy in reducing
fossil fuel dependence. Moreover, solar cells are essential in space applications, where
theyprovide power tosatellites, space stations, and probes. Their clean, renewable, and

6
maintenance-freenaturemakessolarcellsanideal solutionforpromotingsustainable energy across
diverse sectors.

2.3 THREE GENERATIONS OF SOLARCELLS:

Solar Cellsareclassified into three generationswhich indicates theorderofwhich

each became prominent. At present there is concurrent research into all three generations
while the first generation technologies are most highly represented in commercial
production, accounting for 89.6% of 2007 production.Theseare the most widely used and
commercially available solar cells, made from crystalline silicon—either monocrystalline
or polycrystalline. They offer high efficiency (15–22%) and long lifespan, making them
ideal for residential, commercial, and industrial applications. However, they are relatively
expensive to manufacture due to high material and energy.

These cells use thin layers of semiconductor materials such as cadmium telluride
(CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), or amorphous silicon (a-Si). Thin-film
solar cellsare lighter,flexible, andcheaper to producethanfirst-generationcells, butthey
generally have lower efficiency (around 10–15%). They are suitable for large-scale solar
farms, portable devices, and building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV). This generation
includes advanced technologies like perovskite solar cells, organic photovoltaics,
quantum dot solar cells, and multi-junction cells. These are designed to overcome the
efficiency and cost limitations of earlier generations. Some of them promise very high
efficiencies (up to 40% or more in lab settings) and low-cost production, though manyare
still in the research or early commercialization stages. Third-generation solar cellsaim to
combine low cost, high efficiency, and environmental sustainability

7
FIRST GENERATION

CRYSTALLINE SILICONANDVACUUMDEPOSITION

First generation cells consist of large-area, high quality and single junction
devices. First Generation technologies involve high energy and labour inputs which
prevent any significant progress in reducing production costs. Single junction silicon
devices are approaching thetheoretical limiting efficiencyof33% and achieve cost parity
with fossil fuel energy generation after a payback period of 5-7 years.

SECOND GENERATION

THIN-FILMCELL

Second generation materials have been developed to address energyrequirements

and production costs of solar cells. Alternative manufacturing techniques such as vapour
deposition and electroplating are advantageous as they reduce high temperature
processing significantly. It is commonly accepted that as manufacturing techniquesevolve
production costs will be dominated by constituent material requirements, whether this be
a silicon substrate, or glass cover. Such processes can bring costs down to a little under
but because of the defects inherent in the lower quality processing methods, have much
reduced efficiencies compared to First Generation.

The most successful second generation materials have been cadmium telluride
(CdTe), copper indium gallium solenoid, amorphous silicon and micromorphous silicon.
These materials are applied in a thin film to a supporting substrate such as glass or
ceramics reducing materialmassand therefore costs. These technologies do hold promise
of higher conversion efficiencies, particularly CIGS-CIS, DSC and CdTe offers
significantly cheaper production costs. In CdTe production represented 4.7% of total
market share, thin-film silicon 5.2% and CIGS 0.5%.

8
THIRD GENERATION SOLARCELL

Third generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical performance of

second generation (thin-film technologies) while maintaining very low production costs.
Current research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30-60% while retaining low cost
materialsand manufacturing techniques. Theycanexceedthetheoreticalsolar conversion
efficiency for a single energy threshold material; witch was calculated in 1961 by
Shockley and Queisser as 31% under 1 sun illumination and 40.8% under maximal
concentration of sunlight (46,200 suns, which makes the latter limit more difficult to
approach than the former).

thereareafewapproachestoachievingthesehighefficiencies:

 Multijunctionphotovoltaiccell(multipleenergythresholddevices).
 Modifyingincident spectrum(concentration).
 Useofexcessthermalgeneration(caused byUV light)toenhancevoltagesor
carrier collection.
 Useofinfraredspectrumtoproduceelectricityatnight.

2.4 SELECTION OF SOLARCELL:

Despite the numerous attempts at making better solar cells by using new and
exotic materials, the reality is that the photovoltaic market is still dominated by silicon
wafer-based solar cells (first-generation solar cells). This means that most solar cell
manufacturers are equipped to produce these types of solar cells. Therefore, a large body
of research is currently being done all over the world to create silicon wafer-based solar
cells that can achieve higher conversion efficiency without an exorbitant increase in
production cost.

9
2.5 MOTOR

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The

reverse process which of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy is
accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives and some
electric and hybrid automobiles often performs both tasks if the vehicle is equipped with
dynamic brakes. Electric motors are found in household appliances such as fans,
refrigerators, washing machines, poolpumps, floor vacuums, and fan-forced ovens. They
are also found in many other devices such as computer equipment, in its disk drives,
printers, and fans; and in some sound and video playing and recording equipment as
DVD/CD players and recorders, tape players and recorders, and record players. Electric
motors arefound in several kinds of toys suchsome kinds of vehicles and robotic toys.

The principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by

electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in1821
and consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of mercury. A permanent magnet
was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury. When a current was passed through the
wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showingthat the current gave rise to a circular
magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics
classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the
simplest form of a class of electric motors called homopolar motors. A later refinement is
the Barlow's Wheel. These were demonstration devices, unsuited to practical applications
due to limited power.

The first realelectric motor, using electromagnets for both stationary and rotating
parts, was demonstrated by Ányos Jedlik in 1828 Hungary. He built an electric-motor
propelled vehicle in 1828. The first English commutator-type direct-current electricmotor
capable of a practical application was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon
in 1832. Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric
motormadewiththeintentionofcommercialusewasbuiltbytheAmericanThomas

10
Davenport and patented in 1837. Although several ofthese motors were built and used to
operate equipment suchas a printing press, due tothe highcost ofprimarybatterypower, the
motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors
followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same cost
issues with primary battery power. No electricity distribution had been developed at the
time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial market for these motors.
The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, whenZénobe Gramme
connected the dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The
Gramme machine was the first electric motor that was successful in the industry.In 1888
Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase power
transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to follow at
the Westinghouse Company.

In the solar tracking system, a DC geared motor plays a crucial role in adjusting
the position of the solar panel to align with the direction of maximum sunlight. This
motor is controlled bythe Arduino based on input from LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)
sensors. A geared motor is preferred over a regular DC motor because it offers higher
torque and better precision at lower speeds, which is essential for slowly and accurately
rotatingthesolarpanel. Thegear mechanismreducesthemotorspeedwhile increasing its
torque output, making it ideal for handling the weight of the panel without sudden or
jerky movements. This ensures smooth and controlled tracking throughout the day.

The motor is typically connected to a motor driver module, which acts as an

interface between the low-power control signals from the Arduino and the higher power
required bythe motor. When the LDR sensors detect uneven light intensityoneither side of
the panel, the Arduino sends signals to rotate the motor in the appropriate direction until
both sensors receive nearly equal light. This movement maximizes solar exposure and
improves energy generation.

11
 CHAPTER-3

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT

3.1 SOLARPOWER:

Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that influences
Earth's climate and weather and sustains life. Solar power is sometimes used as a
synonym for solar energy or more specificallyto refer to electricity generated from solar
radiation. Since ancient times solar energy has been harnessed for human use through a
range of technologies. Solar radiation along with secondary solar resources such as wind
and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass account for most of the available flow of
renewable energy on Earth. Solar energy technologies can provide electrical generationby
heat engine or photovoltaic means, space heating and cooling in active and passive solar
buildings; potable water via distillation and disinfection, day lighting, hot water, thermal
energy for cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.

Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi conducting
materials, such as silicon. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their
atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the
special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single
direction. The complementary positive charges that are also created (like bubbles) are
called holes and flow inthe directionoppositeofthe electrons ina siliconsolar panel. An
array of solar panels converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
electricity

12
3.2 BATTERY:

Fig.3.1BATTERY CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

In our project we are using secondary type battery. It is rechargeable Type. A

battery is one or more electrochemical cells, which store chemical energy and make it
available as electric current. There are two types of batteries, primary (disposable) and
secondary (rechargeable), both of which convert chemical energy to electrical energy.
Primary batteries can only be used once because they use up their chemicals in an
irreversible reaction. Secondary batteries can be recharged because the chemicalreactions
they use are reversible; they are recharged by running a charging currentthroughthe
battery, but inthe opposite directionofthe discharge current. Secondary, also called
rechargeable batteries can be charged and discharged many times before wearing out.
After wearing out some batteries can be recycled.

13
 Batteries have gained popularity as they became portable and useful for many
purposes. The use of batteries has created many environmental concerns, such as toxic
metal pollution. A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical
energy it consists of one or more voltaic cells. Each voltaic cell consists of two half cells
connected in series by a conductive electrolyte. One half-cell is the positive electrode,and
the other is the negative electrode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are
electricallyconnected bythe electrolyte, whichcanbe either solid orliquid. Abatterycan be
simply modeled as a perfect voltage source which has its own resistance, the resulting
voltage across the load depends on the ratio of the battery's internal resistance to the
resistance of the load.

When the battery is fresh, its internal resistance is low, so the voltage across the
load is almost equal to that of the battery's internal voltage source. As the battery runs
down and its internal resistance increases, the voltage drop across its internal resistance
increases, so the voltage at its terminals decreases, and the battery's ability to deliver
powerto the load decreases. Battery is use for storing the energyproduced fromthe solar
power. The battery used is a lead-acid type and has a capacity of 12v; 2.5A.the most
inexpensive secondary cell is the lead acid cell and is widely used for commercial
purposes. A lead acid cell when ready for use contains two plates immersed in a dilute
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) of specific gravity about 1.28.the positive plate (anode) is of
Lead –peroxide (PbO2) which has chocolate brown colour and the negative plate
(cathode) is lead (Pb) which is of grey colour.

When the cell supplies current to a load (discharging), the chemical action that takes
place forms lead sulphate (PbSO4) on both the plates with water being formed in the
electrolyte. After a certainamount of energy has been withdrawn from the cell,bothplates
are Transformed into the same material and the specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2so4)
is lowerd. the cell is then said to be discharged. there are several methods to
ascertainwhether the cell is discharged or not. Tocharge the cell, direct current is passed
through the cell in the reverse direction to that in which the cell provided current. This
reversesthechemicalprocessandagain formsa leadperoxide(PbO2) positiveplateand a
14
pure lead (Pb) negative plate. At the same time,(H 2so4) is formed at the expense ofwater,
restoring the electrolyte (H2so4 ) to its original condition. The chemical changes that
Occur during discharging and recharging of a lead-acid cell.
3.3.MOTOR:

D.CMOTOR:

Thed.cgeneratorsandd.cmotorshavethesamegeneralconstruction.

MOTOR PRINCIPLE:

Anelectricmotorisamachinewhichconvertsaelectricalenergyto mechanicalenergy.
AllD.Cmachineshavefiveprincipalcomponents
(i)Fieldsystem(II)armaturecore(iii)armaturewinding(iv)Commutator(v)brushes.

FIELD SYSTEM:

The function of the field system is to produce Uniform field withinwhich the
armaturerotates.it consistsofa number ofsalient poles(ofcourse, even number) bolted to
the inside of circular frame (generally called yoke).the yoke is usually made of solid cast
steel whereas the pole piece are composed of stacked laminations. Field coils aremounted
on the poles and carry the d.c exciting current. The field coils are connected in such a
way that adjacent poles have opposite polarity.The m.m.f. developed by the coils
produces a magnetic flux that passes through the pole pieces, the air gap, the armatureand
the frame. Practicald.c machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5mm to 1.5mm.since
armature and field systems are composed of materials that have permeability, most ofthe
m.m.f.of field coils is required to set up flux in the air gap. By reducing the length of air
gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (number of turns).

ARMATURE CORE

The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles.
It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6mm thick) that are stacked to
formacylindricalcore.Thelaminationsareindividuallycoatedwithathininsulating

15
film so that they do not come in electrical contact with each other. The purpose of
laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The laminations are slotted to
accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and to give
shorter air gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.

ARMATURE WINDING

The slotsofthe armature corehold conductorsthat areconnected ina suitable manner

this are known as armature winding. This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is
induced. the The armature conductors are connected inseries-parallel: the conductors
being connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so as to
increase the current. the armature winding ofa d.c.machineis a closed –circuitwinding
:the conductors being connected ina symmetricalmanner forming a closed loop or series
of closed loops.

COMMUTATOR
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes.the commutator
is made ofcoppersegments insulated fromeachother by mica sheets and mountedonthe
shaft of the machine. The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator segments
in a suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding.depending upon the manner in
which the armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are tow
types of armature winding in a.d.c. machine viz(a) lap winding (b) wave winding.Great
care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes
to bounce, producing unacceptable sparking .the sparks may burn the brushes and
overheat and carbonize the commutator.

BRUSHES:

The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating

commutator and stationaryexternalload circuit. The brushes are made of carbonand rest
on thecommutator,thebrush pressureisadjustedby meansof adjustablesprings.if the

16
brush pressure is Very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the
bruches.on the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator
may produce sparking.

STATOR:

The statoris the stationarypart ofanelectric generatororelectric motor.The non-

stationary part on an electric motor is the rotor.Depending on the configuration of a
spinning electromotive device the stator mayact as the field magnet, interacting with the
armature to create motion, or it may act as the armature, receiving its influence from
moving field coils on the rotor.

The first DCgenerators(knownasdynamos) and DC motorsput the field coilson the

stator, and the power generation or motive reaction coils are on the rotor. This was
necessary because a continuously moving power switch known as the commutator is
needed to keepthe field correctlyaligned acrossthe spinning rotor.The commutatormust
become larger and more robust as the currentincreases.The stator of these devices may be
either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Where the stator is an electromagnet, the
coil which energizes it is known as the field coil or field winding.

ROTOR
The rotor is the non-stationary part of a rotary electric motor or alternator, which
rotates because the wires and magnetic field ofthe motor are arranged so that a torque is
developed about the rotor's axis. In some designs, the rotorcan actto serve asthe motor's
armature, across which the input voltage is supplied.

ELECTROMAGNETIC COIL:

An electromagnetic coil is formed when a conductor solid copper wire is wound

around a core or formto create an inductor or electromagnet. One loopof wire is usually
referred to as a turn, and a coil consists of one or more turns. For use in an electronic
circuit, electricalconnection terminals called tapsare often connected to acoil. Coils are
17
often coated with varnish and/or wrapped with insulating tape to provide additional
insulation and secure them in place. A completed coil assembly with taps etc. is often
called a winding. A transformer is an electromagnetic device that has a primary winding
and a secondary winding that transfer’s energy from one electrical circuit to another by
magnetic coupling without moving parts. The term tickler coil usually refers to a thirdcoil
placed in relation to a primary coil and secondary coil. A coil tap is a wiring feature
found on some electrical transformers, inductors and coilpickups, allofwhich are setsof
wire coils. The coil tap are points in a wire coil where a conductive patch has been
exposed. As self induction is larger for larger coil diameter the current in a thick wiretries
to flow on the inside. The ideal use of copper is achieved by foils. Sometimes this means
that a spiral is a better alternative. Multilayer coils have the problem of interlayer
capacitance, so when multiple layers are needed the shape needs to be radically changed
to a short coilwith manylayers so that the voltagebetweenconsecutive layers is smaller.

D.C.MOTOR PRINCIPLE:

Amachinethatconvertsdirectcurrentpowerintomechanicalpowerisknownas
D.C Motor. Its generation is based on the principle that when a current carryingconductor
is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The direction
if this force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

WORKINGOF ADCMOTOR:

Consider a part of a multipolar dc motor as shown in fig 1. when the terminals of the
motor are connected to an external source of dc supply;
(i) Thefieldmagnetsareexciteddeveloping alternateNandSpoles.
(ii) The armature conductors carry currents. All conductors under N-pole carry
currents in one direction while all the conductors under S-pole carry currents
in the opposite direction.
Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of paper and those
under S-pole carrycurrent out ofthe plane of paper as shown in fig. Since each armature
conductoriscarryingcurrent and isplaced inthemagnetic field, mechanicalforceactson

18
it. Applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear that forceoneachconductor is tending to
rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce a
driving torquewhichsetsthe armaturerotating. Whenthe conductormoves fromone side of
the brush to the other, current in the conductor is received and at the same time it comes
under the influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity. Consequently the direction
of force on the conductor remains same.

Fig.3.2DC MOTOR

SERIES MOTORS:

It is a variable speed motor i.e. speedis low at high torque and vice-versa. However, at
lightornoload,themotortendstoattaindangerouslyhighspeed,andthemotorhasa

19
high starting torque. It is, therefore, used where large starting torque is required E, g in
elevators and electric traction.
Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and the speed is automatically required
to reduce at high torques and vice versa. In a series motor, the torque is directly
proportional to the square of the armature current, which means a small increase in
current leads to a large increase in torque. This characteristic makes the motor extremely
powerful at startup. However, the speed of a series motor varies widely with load; it
increases drastically under light load and can become dangerously high with no load,
which is why it should never be run without a load.

Although series motors are not typically used in solar tracking systems due to their high
torque and variable speed characteristics, they are commonly used in systems requiring
mechanical power under heavy loads. Their simplicity, compact size, and high torque
output make them suitable for rugged industrial environments.

3.4 ANALOG-TO-DIGITALCONVERTER:

Analog to digital converter is an electronic integrated circuit. Which converts

continues signals to discrete digital numbers. The reverse operation is performed by a
digital to analog converter. ADC is an electronic device that converts an input analog
voltage (or current) to a digital number. Most converters sample with 6 to 24 bits of
resolution, and produce lessthan 1 mega sample per second.It israre to get morethan24
bits of resolution because of thermal noise generated by passive components such as
resistors. The accuracy and resolution of the ADC directly affect the sensitivity of the
solar tracking system. A higher resolution ADC allows more precise detection of small
changes in light, which leads to more accurate panel alignment. In addition, ADCs
support multiple analog input channels, which enables the Arduino to monitor several
sensors simultaneously, suchas LDRs, temperature sensors, or evensoilmoisture sensors if
added in future upgrades.

The ADC operates very efficiently and consumes low power, which is ideal for
solar-powered embeddedsystems.Furthermore, thefastconversion speed ensures real-

20
time monitoringandcontrol, whichisessentialforresponsivesystemslikesolartracking.
Overall, the ADC plays a critical role in bridging the physical environment with digital
control in this project.

3.5 AMPLIFIER:

Amplifier is anydevice that willconvert one signal often with a small Amount of
energy into another signal often with a larger amount of energy. In popular use, the term
today usually refers to an electronic amplifier, often as in audio applications. The
relationship of the input to the output of an amplifier usually expressed as a function of
the input frequency is called the transfer function of the amplifier, and the magnitude of
the transfer function is termed the gain. A closely related device that emphasizes
conversion of signals of one type to another is a sensor. Amplifier is any device that
changes. Increases, the amplitude of a signal. The "signal" is usually voltage or current.
The relationship ofthe input to the output of an amplifier usuallyexpressed as a function
of the input frequency is called the transfer function of the amplifier, and the
magnitudeofthetransfer function istermed the gain. Arelated devicethat
emphasizesconversionof signals of one type to another.

3.6 LDR:

LDR means light dependent resistor. It isa component that changes withthe light
Intensity that falls upon it. They have a resistance that falls with an increase in the light
Intensity falling upon the device. There are many applications for Light Dependent
Resistors. The most obvious application for an LDR is to automaticallyturn on a light at
certain light level. An example of this could be a street light.

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), also known as a photoresistor, is a type of

resistor whose resistance varies with the intensity of light falling on its surface. When
exposed to light, the resistance of the LDR decreases, allowing more current to pass
through. In darkness or low light, its resistance increases significantly, restricting
theflowofcurrent.ThisuniquepropertymakesLDRshighlysuitableforlight-sensing

21
applications such as solar tracking, automatic street lights, light meters, and smartlighting
systems.In the solar tracking system, two LDRs are strategicallyplaced on either side
ofthe solar panelto detect the direction of sunlight. When the light intensityon both
sensors is unequal, the Arduino interprets the signal and activates the motor to rotate the
panel towardthe brighter side. Once both LDRs receive equal light, the panel is correctly
aligned with the sun. This real-time feedback mechanism ensures maximum solar
exposure throughout the day, thereby improving the overall efficiencyof the solar power
system.

LDRs are inexpensive, compact, and easy to use, making them ideal for small-
scale and educational projects. They are non-polarized components, which means theycan
be connected inanydirection in the circuit. Despite their simplicity, LDRs are highly
effective indetecting changes inambient light, enabling intelligent automation invarious
systems. Their role in the solar tracking project is crucial, as they serve as the primary
sensors for dynamic alignment of the solar panel.

LDR SENSOR

A photoresistor is an electronic component whose resistance decreases with

increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a light-dependent resistor
(LDR), or photoconductor. Aphotoresistoris madeofa high-resistance semiconductor. If
light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band.The
resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering
resistance.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. In intrinsic devices, the

onlyavailable electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough
energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities
added,whichhaveagroundstateenergyclosertotheconductionband—sincethe

22
electronsdon't have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e. longer wavelengthsand
lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device.

Fig.3.3LDRSENSOR

3.7 CA MIUM SULPHIDE CELLS:

Cadmium sulphide or cadmium sulphide (CdS) cells rely on the material's ability
to varyitsresistanceaccording totheamount oflight strikingthecell. The morelight that
strikes the cell, the lower the resistance. Although not accurate, even a simple CdS cell
can have a wide range ofresistance fromlessthan100 Ω inbright light to inexcessof10 MΩ
in darkness. The cells are also capable of reacting to a broad range of frequencies,

Fig.3.4CADMIUM SULPHIDE CELLS

including infrared (IR), visible light, and ultraviolet (UV). They are often found on street
lights as automatic on/offswitches. Theywere once evenused inheat-seeking missiles to
sense for targets.

23
3.8 CONTROL UNIT

Microcontrollers are destined to play an increasingly important role in

revolutionizing various industries and influencing our day to day life more strongly than
one can imagine. Since its emergence in the early 1980's the microcontroller has been
recognized asageneralpurposebuilding block for intelligent digitalsystems. It is finding
using diverse area, starting from simple children's toys to highly complex spacecraft.
Because of its versatility and many advantages, the application domain has spread in all
conceivable directions, making it ubiquitous. As a consequence, it has generate a great
deal of interest and enthusiasm among students, teachers and practicing engineers,
creating an acute education need for imparting the knowledge of microcontroller based
system design and development. It identifies the vital features responsible for their
tremendous impact,the acuteeducationalneed created bythemand provides a glimpse of
the major application area.

MICRO CONTROLLER:

A microcontroller is a complete microprocessor system built on a single IC.

Microcontrollers were developed to meet a need for microprocessors to be put into low
cost products. Building a complete microprocessor system on a single chip substantially
reduces the cost of building simple products, which use the microprocessor's power to
implement their function, because the microprocessor is a natural way to implementmany
products. This means the idea of using a microprocessor for low cost products comes up
often. But the typical 8-bit microprocessor based system, such as one using a Z80 and
8085 is expensive. Both 8085 and Z80 system need some additional circuits to make a
microprocessor system. Each part carries costs of money. Even though a product design
may requires only very simple system, the parts needed to make this system as a low cost
product.

24
 To solve this problem microprocessor system is implemented with a single chip
microcontroller. This could be called microcomputer, as all the major parts are in the IC.
Most frequently they are called microcontroller because they are used they are used to
performcontrolfunctions. The microcontroller contains full implementationofa standard
MICROPROCESSOR, ROM, RAM, I/0, CLOCK, TIMERS, and also SERIAL PORTS.
Microcontrolleralso called"systemonachip"or"singlechip microprocessorsystem"or "computer
on a chip".

A microcontroller is a Computer-On-A-Chip, or, if you prefer, a single-chip

computer. Micro suggeststhatthe device is small, and controller tells you that the device'
might be used to control objects, processes, or events. Another term to describe a
microcontroller is embedded controller, because the microcontroller and its support
circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control. Today
microcontrollers are very commonly used in wide variety of intelligent products. For
example most personal computers keyboards and implemented with a microcontroller. It
replaces Scanning, Debounce, Matrix Decoding, and Serial transmission circuits. Many
low cost products, such as Toys, Electric Drills, Microwave Ovens, VCR and a host of
other consumer and industrial products are based on microcontrollers. Microcontroller isa
general purpose device, which integrates a number of the components of a
microprocessor system on to single chip. It has inbuilt CPU, memory and peripherals to
make it as a mini computer. A microcontroller combines on to the same micr0. Micro
controller is a stand alone unit, which can perform functions on its own without any
requirement for additional hardware like i/o portsand external memory. The heart of the
microcontroller is the CPU core. In the past, this has traditionally been based on a 8-bit.

25
 CHAPTER-4

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT AND DRAWING

4.1 COMPONENTS

SI.NO COMPONENTS NAME

1 ArduinoUno

2 LDRSensor

3 RealTimeClock

4 Relay

5 SingleAxisSolarTrackingModel
6 SolarPanel

7 Battery

8 DCMotor

A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electrical energy using the
photovoltaiceffect. Itconsistsofmultiplesolar cells made fromsemiconductormaterials,
typicallysilicon, whichgenerate direct current (DC) electricitywhenexposed to sunlight. In
this project, the solar panel serves as the primary power source, supplying energy to run
the entire system, including the Arduino, sensors, motor, and water pump. It also
chargesthebattery,ensuringcontinuousoperationevenduringcloudyweatheror

26
nighttime. Solar panels are reliable, eco-friendly, and require minimal maintenance,
making them ideal for off-grid and renewable energy applications. The battery in this
system stores electrical energy generated by the solar panel. It ensures uninterrupted
power supplyto the components, especiallywhen sunlight is unavailable. A rechargeable
battery, typically a 12V lead-acid or lithium-ion battery, is used to maintain energy
availability during nighttime or cloudy conditions. The battery provides stable voltage to
the Arduino, sensors, motor, and relay module. It acts as a backup power source,
increasing the system’s reliability and enabling consistent performance in remote areas
where grid electricity is not accessible.

The motor control unit is an essential component that interfaces between the Arduino
and the DC geared motor. It typically includes an H-bridge motor driver (such as L298N
or L293D) that allows the Arduino to control the direction and speed of the motor using
low-power digital signals. When the Arduino receives input from the LDR sensors
indicating a light imbalance, it sends control signals to the motor control unit, which in
turn activates the motor to rotate the solar panel in the correct direction. The motor
control unit ensures smooth, accurate, and safe operation of the motor, preventingdamage
due to overvoltage or incorrect wiring.

ensuring continuous operation even during cloudy weather or nighttime. Solar panels
are reliable, eco-friendly, and require minimal maintenance, making them ideal for off-
grid and renewable energy applications. The battery in this system stores
electricalenergygenerated bythe solar pane. Each component in the system plays a critical
role in achieving full automation. The Arduino Uno acts as the brain of the project,
processing sensor data and controlling outputs. All components are chosen for their
affordability,low power consumption, and ease of integration, making the system cost-
effective and scalable.

27
4.2 2D DRAWING OF COMPONENTS

Fig.4.1: 2D VIEW OF DC MOTOR COMPONENTS

28
Fig.4.2 2D VIEW OF GEAR MOTOR COMPONENTS

29
Fig.4.3: 2D VIEW OF LEAD ACID CELL COMPONENTS

30
 Fig.4.4: 2D VIEW OF 9V HW BATTERY COMPONENTS

Fig.4.5:SOLAR POWERED AGRICULTURE WATER PUMPING SYSTEM

WITH AUTO TRACKING

31
Fig.4.6:2D VIEW OF 12V HW BATTERY COMPONENTS

Fig.4.7: 2D VIEW OF SOLAR PANEL COMPONENTS

32
 CHAPTER -5

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The working principle ofthe solar tracking systemwithRTC-controlled waterpump

revolves around the integration of light sensors, a microcontroller (Arduino Uno), a motor
control mechanism, and a timing system to efficiently utilize solar energy for both electricity
generation and automated irrigation. The primary function of the system is to track the sun’s
position throughout the day. This is achieved using two Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs)
placed onopposite sidesofthe solar panel. LDRsare sensitive to light;their resistance changes
based on the amount of light they receive.When sunlight falls unevenly on the two LDRs, there
will be a difference in resistance, which is read by the Arduino through its analog input pins.
The Arduino compares the readings from both LDRs to determine the direction of maximum
sunlight.

If the left LDR receives more light than the right one, the Arduino sends a signal to
the motor control unit to rotate the panel to the left. Conversely, if the right LDR is more
illuminated, the panel rotates to the right. A DC geared motor connected via an H-Bridgemotor
driver (such as L298N) is used for this controlled movement. The panel continues to adjust its
position until both LDRs receive approximately equal light intensity, indicating that the panel
is aligned with the sun. This single-axis tracking mechanism ensures that the solar panel is
always facing the direction of maximum sunlight, thereby increasing energygeneration
efficiency by up to 25% compared to fixed panels.To automate irrigation, a Real- Time Clock
(RTC) module (like DS1307 or DS3231) is integrated into the system. The RTC continuously
keeps track of the current time, even when the system is powered off, thankstoits onboard
battery. The Arduino constantly reads the time data from the RTC module via I2C
communication. At predefined times (e.g., 6:00 AM and 6:00 PM), the Arduino checks the
RTC values and activates a relay module that controls the water pump. When the scheduled
time is reached, the Arduino sends a signal to turn ONthe relay, allowing current to flow from
the battery to the pump.

33
 The pump operates for a fixed duration (e.g., 5–10 minutes) to water plants. After
the set time elapses, the Arduino turns OFF the relay, stopping the pump automatically. This
eliminates the need for manual irrigation, making it especially useful in remote or off-grid
agricultural areas. A 16x2 LCD display is used to show system status, including real-timeclock
readings, motor movement direction, and pump operation messages. This gives the user
immediate feedback about the system’s activities. The entire system is powered by the solar
panel, which charges a rechargeable battery. The battery stores energy to run the system even
during periods without sunlight.`This working principle combines solar tracking and automatic
irrigation in a smart, energy-efficient, and cost-effective solution. It promotes the use of
renewable energy while reducing human effort, making it ideal for small-scale farming and
remote locations.

The use of a DC geared motor is crucial in this system as it provides high torque at low speed,
allowing smooth and controlled movement of the solar panel without overshooting. The motor
is connected to the solar panel frame and rotates it along a single axis (typically east-west),
enabling it to follow the sun’s movement throughout the day. This precise alignment helps in
increasing solar panel output by up to 25% compared to static panels.To ensure accurate and
safe motor operation, the motor driver module (such as L298N) serves as an interface between
the Arduino and the motor, handling the higher current required for rotation. The driver allows
the motor to rotate in both directions, depending on which LDR detects more light.

The RTC module, typically backed bya coin cell battery, retains accurate time data
even when the main system power is off. This ensures the reliability of time-based functions,
especially in agricultural scenarios where consistent irrigation timing is essential for healthy
crop growth.This system not only automates solar alignment and irrigation but also
demonstrates how embedded systems and renewable energy can work together to support
sustainable farming, reduce manual labor, and conserve water and energy resources.

34
 CHAPTER-6

APPLICATION

The solar tracking system integrated with an RTC-controlled water pump has a
wide range of practical applications, especially in the fields of agriculture, renewable
energy, rural development, environmental sustainability, and education. Its core function
—maximizing solar energy collection and automating irrigation—makes it a valuable
solutionfor improvingenergyefficiencyandpromotingsmart farmingpractices. One of the
most significant applications is in rural and remote agricultural areas where access to grid
electricity is limited or non-existent. Traditional irrigation systems in such regions often
rely on manual effort or costly fuel-powered pumps. By using this solar- powered system,
farmers can automatically irrigate their crops at scheduled times, reducing labor costs and
ensuring consistent watering. The integration of a Real-Time Clock (RTC) module allows
precise control of irrigation timing, which is essential for water conservation and crop
health.

This system is also ideal for use in solar-powered drip and sprinkler irrigation setups,
where maintaining regular and measured water delivery is crucial. The solar tracking
mechanism ensures the solar panel generates maximum power throughout the day,
enabling the pump to operate efficiently even under low-light conditions. This makes it
highly suitable for water-scarce regions where efficient water management is vital.
Another application is in greenhouses and controlled-environment agriculture, where
automated systems are used to regulate temperature, humidity, and soil moisture. This
systemcan serve as part ofa larger smart agriculture setup, working in coordination with
sensors and control units to manage the environment optimally. By watering plants at
scheduled times using clean solar energy, the system helps maintain ideal growth
conditions with minimal human intervention.Since the system operates on renewable
energy, it aligns with smart city and sustainability goals by reducing reliance on
conventional electricity and promoting green infrastructure.

35
From an educational perspective, this project serves as an excellent learning platform in
engineering colleges, polytechnics, and schools. It demonstrates real-world applications
of embedded systems, renewable energy, and automation technologies.

In urban environments, the system can be used in public parks, gardens, and institutional
campuses for landscape irrigation. The eco-friendly and quiet operation of the system
makes it suitable for populated areas, and its use promotes awareness of green
technologies. Since the system operates on renewable energy, it aligns with smart cityand
sustainability goals by reducing reliance on conventional electricity and promoting green
infrastructure. From an educational perspective, this project serves as an excellent
learningplatforminengineering colleges, polytechnics, andschools. It demonstratesreal-
world applications of embedded systems, renewable energy, and automationtechnologies.
Students can gain hands-on experience in programming microcontrollers, interfacing
sensors and actuators, and understanding energy management. It can also be showcased
in science fairs, exhibitions, and innovation competitions.

Additionally, thesystemcanbe scaled upor modified for specialized applicationssuchas

disaster relief areas, temporary farming settlements, or wildlife sanctuaries, where
traditional infrastructure may be unavailable. Its low cost, portability, and ease of
installation make it an attractive option for government and NGO-led development
initiatives. Inconclusion, thissystemis notonlya technologicallysound solution but also a
socially impactful one, addressing the challenges of energy access, water management,
and sustainability. Its wide applicability across different sectors highlights its potential as
a valuable contribution to smart and eco-friendly innovations.

36
 CHAPTER-7

MERITS

The solar tracking system with RTC-controlled water pump offers several
important merits that enhance both its technical performance and practical usability,
particularly in agriculture and renewable energyapplications. One ofthe most significant
advantages is its ability to increase solar energy efficiency. By using LDR sensors and a
geared motor to align the solar panel with the direction of maximumsunlight, the system
ensures that more solar energy is capturedthroughoutthe day. This can lead to a 20–25%
increase in energy output compared to a fixed panel.Another major merit is automation.
With the integration of a Real-Time Clock (RTC) module, the system can automatically
control the water pump at scheduled times, such as early morning and evening. This
eliminates the need for manual intervention, ensuring timely and consistent irrigation. Itis
particularly beneficial for farmers in remote or rural areas where labor resources maybe
limited.

The system is also eco-friendly and cost-effective. It operates entirely on solar

power, reducing dependence on electricity or fossil fuels and helping to cut energy costs.
Additionally, it uses low-cost components like Arduino, LDRs, relays, and DC motors,
making it accessible and affordable for small-scale farmers.Other key merits include low
maintenance, due to the simple and durable mechanical design, and scalability, which
allows the systemto be expanded or integrated with additional features like soil moisture
sensors, dual-axis tracking, or IoT connectivity. The project also promotes sustainable
farming and supports environmental conservation by using renewable energy and
optimizing water use. In summary, the system combines automation, efficiency, and
environmental responsibility, making it a practical and impactful solution for modern
agriculture and renewable energy application.

37
 CHAPTER -8
COST ESTIMATION

1. MATERIALCOST

SL.NO COMPONENTS/MATERIAL NO. OF. COST

QUANTITY
1 DCGearedMotor 1 1700

2 ArduinoUno, LCD 1 500

3 TrackingModel 1 1000

4 LDRSensor 2 200

5 RealTimeClock 1 300

TOTAL 3700

2. LABOUR COST

 Lathe

 Drilling

 Welding

 Grinding

38
  powerhacksaw

 gascuttingcost

3. OVERGHEADCHARGES:

The overhead charges are arrived by “manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost =MaterialCost+LabourCost

=3700+1200

=4900Rs.

OverheadCharges =20%ofthemanufacturingcost

=950Rs.

4. TOTAL COST:

Totalcost=MaterialCost+LabourCost+OverheadCharges

=3700+1200+950

=5850Rs.

Total cost for this project = 5850Rs.

39
 CHAPTER-9

CONCLUSION
9.1 CONCLUSION

The design and implementation of the solar tracking system with RTC-controlled
water pump demonstrate a practical and efficient solution that combines renewableenergy
utilization with smart automation. The project successfully addresses two major
challenges in the field of sustainable agriculture: optimizing solar energy collection and
automating irrigation processes. By integrating low-cost components like Arduino Uno,
LDR sensors, a DC geared motor, RTC module, and a relay-controlled water pump, the
system effectively increases energy efficiency while reducing the need for manual
intervention.

The single-axis solar tracking mechanism ensures that the solar panel remains
aligned with the sun throughout the day, significantly enhancing the amount of solar
energy captured. This leads to an estimated 20–25% improvement in power output
compared to a fixed-panel setup. The use of LDR sensors and a geared motor allows for
precise and smooth adjustments based on real-time sunlight direction, ensuring optimal
panel orientation. In parallel, the integration of a Real-Time Clock (RTC) module adds
automation to the irrigation process. The Arduino reads time data from the RTC and
activates the water pump through a relay at pre-set intervals, such as early morning and
evening. Thisensurestimelywatering ofcropswithout requiring anyhuman input, which is
particularly beneficial for remote farms and off-grid agricultural applications. The water
pump operates for a fixed duration to prevent over-irrigation and minimize water
wastage, promoting efficient water resource management.

The entire system is powered by solar energy, which not only reduces electricity
costs but also supports environmentally friendly farming practices. The inclusion of a
rechargeablebattery ensuresthatthesystem canoperateevenduringcloudy daysorat

40
night, providing reliability and continuity.Overall, the project demonstrates the effective
use of microcontroller-based automation in the agricultural sector, showcasing a cost-
effective, scalable, and eco-friendly approach to energy and water management. This
prototype lays the groundwork for future advancements, such as integrating soil moisture
sensors, dual-axis tracking, or IoT-based monitoring systems. By promoting renewable
energy and smart automation, project contributes to the broader goal of achieving
sustainable and smart agriculture. . The project successfully addresses two major
challenges in the field of sustainable agriculture: optimizing solar energy collection and
automating irrigation processes. By integrating low-cost components like Arduino Uno,
LDR sensors, a DC geared motor, RTC module, and a relay-controlled water pump, the
system effectively increases energy efficiency while reducing the need for manual
intervention.

9.2 FUTURE SCOPE

The solar tracking systemwithRTC-controlled waterpump hasgreat potentialfor

future development and real-world implementation. As the demand for sustainable and
smart farming solutions continues to grow, this project can be enhanced and expanded in
multiple directions to increase its efficiency, reliability, and applicability.
One of the most promising upgrades is the integration of a soil moisture sensor. This
would allow the system to irrigate only when the soil is dry, further optimizing water
usage and preventing over-irrigation. By combining time-based and sensor-based
irrigation, the system can achieve intelligent control based on both environmental
conditions and predefined schedules. Another potential enhancement is upgrading the
system to a dual-axis solar tracking mechanism.

While the current single-axis tracker increases solar efficiency significantly, a dual-axis
system can track the sun in both horizontal and vertical directions, capturing even more
sunlight and improving energyoutput throughout the day and across seasons. The system
can also be integrated with IoT (Internet of Things) technology for remote monitoringand
control. By connecting the Arduino to a cloud platform via Wi-Fior GSM, users can
monitor solar panelperformance, pump status, and sensor readings froma smartphone or

41
computer. By combining time-based and sensor-based irrigation, the system can achieve
intelligent control based on both environmental conditions and predefined schedules.
Another potential enhancement is upgrading the system to a dual-axis solar tracking
mechanism.This would be highly beneficial for large farms, research stations, and
government monitoring systems, enabling data logging, alerts, and maintenance
notifications. In terms of power management, future versions can include MPPT
(Maximum Power Point Tracking) charge controllers to improve the efficiency of solar
power conversion and battery charging. Energy storage can also be enhanced with more
efficient and long-lasting Li-ion or LiFePO₄ batteries. Mechanically, the tracking system
can be improved with weatherproof materials, solar panel tilting mechanisms, andsturdier
mounts to ensure durability in harsh outdoor environments. These mechanical upgrades
will make the system more robust and suitable for long-term deployment inrural and
agricultural areas.

Lastly, this system has strong potential in the fields of education,

entrepreneurship, and ruraldevelopment projects. It can be scaled and commercialized as
a low-cost automationsolutionforfarmers, orusedasa foundationforstudent innovation
challenges, start-ups,and government-funded greentechnologyinitiatives. Byconnecting
the Arduino to a cloud platform via Wi-Fi or GSM, users can monitor solar panel
performance, pump status, and sensor readings from a smartphone or computer. This
would be highly beneficial for large farms, research stations, and government monitoring
systems, enabling data logging, alerts, and maintenance notifications. In terms of power
management, future versions can include MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking)
charge controllers to improve the efficiency of solar power conversion and battery
charging. In conclusion, the project has a wide scope for advancement with modern
technologies, offering endless possibilities for sustainable energy and smart agriculture.

42
 REFERENCES

1. Rani, B., Sharma, K., & Gupta, A. (2017). Solar Tracking System Using
Microcontroller. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research (IJSER),
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2. Khan, S., & Pathan, A. (2018). RTC Controlled Irrigation System. International
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3. Kumar, P., & Singh, A. (2019). Design and Implementation of Solar Powered Water
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4. Sharma, M., & Verma, K. (2020). Smart Solar Irrigation System Using Arduino.
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5. Bhattacharya, S. (2015). Renewable Energy Technologies. Oxford University Press.

6. Rashid, M. H. (2017). Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices, and Applications (4th ed.).
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7. El-Khozondar, H., & El-Khozondar, R. (2016). Solar Tracking System: Design and
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8. Bansal, N. K., Minke, G., & Butz, A. (2005). Passive Building Design: A Handbook of
Natural Climate Control. Elsevier.

9. Garg, H. P., & Prakash, J. (2000). Solar Energy: Fundamentals and Applications. Tata
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10. Yadav, P., & Meena, R. (2019). Design of Smart Irrigation System Using RTC and Soil
Moisture Sensor. International Journal of Computer Applications (IJCA), 182(42), 1–5.

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 PHOTOGRAPHY

3 DIMENSIONAL VIEW OF SOLAR AGRO SPRAYER SYSTEM

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PROTO TYPE MODEL

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