BIOLOGICAL

MOLECULES

CHAPTER 4
CARBOHYDRATES

• Learning Outcomes
• After this section, you should be able to:
• state the chemical elements in
carbohydrates;
• understand that glycogen is made from
glucose;
• investigate for the presence of starch and
reducing sugars.
Carbohydrates

What are carbohydrates?

• Carbohydrates are organic
molecules made up of:
- carbon
- hydrogen
- oxygen

• The ratio of hydrogen atoms to the oxygen atoms in

carbohydrates is 2:1.
 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

(single sugars) (double sugars) (complex carbohydrates)

Glucose Maltose Starch

Fructose Sucrose Glycogen
Galactose Lactose Cellulose

All monosaccharides and disaccharides (except sucrose) are

reducing sugars.
 Carbohydrates

How are disaccharides formed?

• A condensation reaction is a chemical reaction in
which two simple molecules are joined together to form
a larger molecule with the removal of one molecule of
water.

• When two glucose molecules join together via the

condensation reaction, maltose is formed.

+ water

glucose glucose maltose

 Carbohydrates

Hydrolysis of disaccharides
• Hydrolysis is a reaction in which a water molecule
is needed to break up a complex molecule into
simple molecules.

• A double sugar can be split into two single sugar

molecules by hydrolysis in the presence of an enzyme.
enzyme
water
maltase

maltose glucose glucose

 Carbohydrates

How can we test for reducing sugars?

By carrying out the Benedict’s test

1. Add 2 cm3 of Benedict’s solution to 2 cm3 of food
sample in a test tube.
2. Shake the mixture.
3. Heat the contents in a boiling water bath for 2-3
minutes.

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 Carbohydrates

Benedict’s Test

A green, yellow or brick-red precipitate is formed if reducing sugar is

present in trace, moderate or large amounts, respectively.
 Carbohydrates

Types of complex carbohydrates

Starch Glycogen Cellulose

• A storage form • A storage form of • Cellulose cell wall
of carbohydrates carbohydrates in protects plant cells
in plants mammals
• Digested to form • Serve as dietary
• Found in storage fibres to prevent
glucose when
organs in plants constipation
needed
 Carbohydrates

Hydrolysis of starch
amylase amylase amylase
Starch is broken
down into maltose
molecules by
amylase.
maltase maltase maltase maltase

Maltose molecules
are broken down into
glucose by maltase.

glucose molecules
 Carbohydrates

How can we test for starch?

By carrying out the Iodine test

1. Add 2 cm3 of food sample to a clean test tube.

2. Add a few drops of iodine solution to the test
tube.

A blue-black solution is formed if starch is present.

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 Carbohydrates
Functions of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are needed:
• to provide energy for cell activities
• to form supporting structures (e.g. cell wall)
• for conversion into other organic compounds
(e.g. amino acids and fats)
• to form nucleic acids (e.g. DNA)
• to synthesise lubricants
• to synthesise nectar in flowers
 Fats

Learning Outcomes
After this section, you should be able to:
• state the chemical elements in fats;
• understand that fats are made from glycerol and
fatty acids;
• investigate for the presence of fats.
 Fats

What are fats?

• Fats are organic compounds
made up of:
- carbon
- hydrogen
- oxygen

• Fats contain much less oxygen in proportion

to hydrogen.
• The proportions of the elements in fats are
not fixed.
 Fats

What are fats?

A fat molecule is made up of:
• glycerol
• fatty acid chains

Fatty acid

Glycerol Fatty acid

Fatty acid
 Fats

Hydrolysis of fats
Fats can be broken down into simpler compounds
by hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis of fats produces fatty acids and glycerol.

enzyme
3H2O

Fat molecule 3 water glycerol 3 fatty acid

molecules molecules
Fats

Saturated and unsaturated fats

 Fats

How can we test for fats?

By carrying out the Ethanol emulsion test

1. Add 2 cm3 of ethanol to 2 cm3 of food

sample in a test tube.
2. Shake the contents of the tube vigorously.
3. Decant 3 cm3 of water into the test tube
and shake the mixture.
A cloudy white emulsion is formed if fats are present.

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 Fats

Functions of fats
Fats:
• a source and store of energy
• act as an insulating material to
prevent excessive heat loss
• are a solvent for fat soluble vitamins
and some hormones
• form the main part of cell membranes
• help reduce water loss from skin surface
 Proteins

Learning Outcomes
After this section, you should be able to:
• state the chemical elements in proteins;
• understand that polypeptides and proteins are
made from amino acids;
• investigate for the presence of proteins.
 Proteins

What are proteins?

• Proteins are organic compounds
made up of:
- carbon
- hydrogen
- oxygen
- nitrogen

• Each protein molecule is made up of smaller basic

units called amino acids.
 Proteins

What are proteins?

• Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are
made up of:
- an amino group
- an acid group
- a side chain
side chain

NH2 CH COOH
amino group acid group
 Proteins

What are proteins? amino acids

• Amino acids are the

building blocks of proteins.

polypeptide

• Peptide bonds link up amino

acids to form a polypeptide.

protein
• Two or more polypeptide
chains fold to form a 3-D
molecule, called protein.
 Proteins

How can we test for proteins?

By carrying out the Biuret test

1. Add 2 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution to
2 cm3 of food sample into a test tube.
2. Shake the mixture thoroughly.
3. Add 1% copper(II) sulfate solution drop by drop,
shaking the mixture after each drop.
A purple or violet solution is formed if proteins are present.

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 Proteins

Functions of proteins
Proteins are needed for:

• the synthesis of new protoplasm for growth

and repair of worn-out cells

• the synthesis of enzymes and some hormones

• the synthesis of antibodies

The DCPIP test is a simple way to check for vitamin C in food and
drinks. DCPIP (Dichlorophenolindophenol) is a blue liquid that changes
color when it reacts with vitamin C.

https://youtu.be/zbLGA_rWBFw?si=RU31WiNkhBeCYfCl
Materials Needed
1. DCPIP solution (blue liquid)
2. Fruit juice or vitamin C solution
3. Test tubes
4. Dropper or pipette
5. Beaker of water (for cleaning test tubes)

Procedure
1. Pour 2 cm³ of DCPIP solution into a test tube.
2. Use a dropper to add fruit juice drop by drop into the test tube.
3. Shake the test tube gently after adding each drop.

Observation
1. If vitamin C is present, the blue DCPIP solution will turn colorless.
2. The more drops needed to make the solution colorless, the less vitamin C in the juice.
3. If no change happens, there is no vitamin C in the sample.
The Structure of DNA
The Structure of DNA

DNA is like a recipe book for life! It carries instructions that tell our bodies how to grow and work.
Here’s a simple breakdown of its structure:

1. Shape
o DNA has a double helix shape (like a twisted ladder).
o This shape helps it store information and copy itself easily.

2. Sides of the Ladder

o The sides of the DNA ladder are made of sugar and phosphate.
o They keep the DNA strong and hold everything together.

3. Steps of the Ladder

o The steps of the ladder are made of base pairs (special chemical letters).
o There are four bases:
• Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)
• Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)
o These bases store genetic information like a secret code!
THANK YOU