BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

UNIT-1
FROM ATOMS TO ORGANISMS
The cell: The basic unit of life
• Cells are the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living beings.
• Every cell has its own life.
• Old and week cells in the body continually die and are replaced by new cells.

• All organisms including ourselves, start life as a single cell.

• Cells are so small (microscopic)

Cell theory
Cell theory is a scientific theory which describes the properties of cells. Cell theory was
eventually formulated in 1838. This is usually credited to Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells

Cell types
Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell

Prokaryotic Cell Structure and Function

Prokaryote means before nucleus in Greek. They include all cells which lack nucleus and
other membrane bound organelles. Most vary in size from 0.2 μm to 750 μm . They belong to
two taxonomic domains which are the bacteria and the archaea. They are membrane bound
mostly unicellular organisms lacking any internal membrane bound organelles.

Capsule: The capsule is found in some bacterial cells, this additional outer covering protects
the cell when it is engulfed by phagocytes and by viruses, assists in retaining moisture, and
helps the cell adhere to surfaces and nutrients.

Cell wall: Cell wall is the outermost layer of most cells that protects the bacterial cell and
gives it shape.. Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan which is made from
polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D-amino acids. The cell
wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan.
The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria. The antibiotic penicillin is able to
kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to
weaken and lyse. Lysozyme enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls.
Cell membrane: Cell membrane surrounds the cell's cytoplasm and regulates the flow of
substances in and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm of a cell is a fluid in nature that fills the cell and is composed
mainly of 80% water that also contains enzymes, salts, cell organelles, and various organic
molecules.

Ribosomes: Ribosomes are the organelles of the cell responsible for protein synthesis.
Nucleiod Region: The nucleoid region is possessed by a prokaryotic bacterial cell. It is the
area of the cytoplasm that contains the bacterial DNA molecule.
Plasmids: A plasmid is a DNA molecule (mostly in bacteria) that is separate from. They are
otherwise denoted as extra piece of chromosomal DNA. They are double-stranded and
circular. Plasmids are responsible for 1. Virulence factor 2. Antibiotic resistance 3.
Conjugation: The process of transferring genetic material from one bacterial cell to another
bacterial cell.

Pili: Pili are hair-like structures on the surface of the cell that help attach to other bacterial
cells. Shorter pili called fimbriae help bacteria attach to various surfaces. A pilus is typically
6 to 7 nm in diameter.
Flagella: It is a long, whip-like protrusion found in most prokaryotes that aids in cellular
locomotion. Besides its main function of locomotion it also often functions as a sensory
organelle, being sensitive to chemicals and temperatures outside the cell. The bacterial
flagellum is made up of the protein flagellin.

Eukaryotic Cell Structure and Function

Eukaryotes are true cells. They have well defined nucleus and membrane bound organelles.
They belong to the taxa eukaryote.

Cell Wall: It is the extracellular structure surrounding plasma membrane. The cell wall is
composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. An important function of the cell wall is
that it controls turgidity.
Cell membrane: The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing selective substances to pass
into the cell and blocking others.
Chloroplasts: The plastids are chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll and the biochemical
systems for light harvesting and photosynthesis.
Mitochondria: These are spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The
inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The
mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for
the cell.
Nucleus: They are spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The
nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) and
contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane and
possesses the nucleolus which is an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA
is produced.
Endoplasmic reticulum: Endoplasmic reticulum is the sites of protein maturation and they
can be divided into the following types:

Rough endoplasmic reticulum: These are a vast system of interconnected, membranous,

infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's. Rough ER is covered with
ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transport materials through the cell and
produces proteins in sacks called cisternae.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: These are a vast system of interconnected, membranous, in
folded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm. Smooth ER buds off
from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body and
membranes.
Golgi apparatus: It is a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle involved in packaging proteins
and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for export from the cell.

Lysosome: Lysosomes are cellular organelles that contain the hydrolase enzymes which
breaks down waste materials and cellular debris. They can be described as the stomach of the
cell.
Peroxisome: Peroxisomes are organelles that contain oxidative enzymes. Peroxisomes
function to rid the body of toxic substances like hydrogen peroxide, or other metabolites.
They are a major site of oxygen utilization.
Centrosome: They are small body located near the nucleus. The centrosomes are the
destination where microtubules are made. During mitosis, the centrosome divides and the two
parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell.
Vacuoles: They act as storage areas.

Type Animal cell Plant cell

Cell wall Absent Present
Vacuole Many small vacuoles One large central vacuole
Chloroplast Absent Present
Shape Variable cell shape Regular cell shape
Centrioles Present Absent

Molecular Components of cells

Water: Water is the most abundant molecule in cells, accounting for 70% or more of total
cell mass. Water is a polar molecule. Hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge and
Oxygen atoms have a slight negative charge. Because of this polar nature, water molecules
can form hydrogen bonds with each other or with other polar molecules. They interact with
positively or negatively charged ions.
Inorganic molecules: Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Magnesium, Calcium, Phosphate,
Chloride, bicarbonate. They constitute 1% of the cell mass. These ions are involved in a
number of aspects of cell metabolism and function.
Organic molecules: They are the unique constituents of cells
1. Carbohydrates. 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic acids
2.
Carbohydrates
A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen
(O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words,
with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n . Carbohydrates consist of saccharide, a group that
includes sugars, starch, and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups:
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to
smaller carbohydrates. They are aldehydes or ketones with two or more hydroxyl groups.
Monosaccharides are classified based on the number of carbon atoms. Monosaccharides with
three carbon atoms are called trioses, those with four are called tetroses, five are called
pentoses, six are hexoses, and so on. Ex. Glucose is a hexose.
Disaccharides : Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide. They are composed
of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic
linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one
monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other. Ex. Sucrose, lactose

Oligosaccharides : Three to six units of monosaccharides are joined together to form a

oligosaccharide Ex. Raffinose.
Polysaccharides : A polysaccharide is a large molecule made of many monosaccharides
Ex. Starch, cellulose.

Lipids
Lipids are insoluble organic compounds that consist of fat and oil. The roles of lipids in cells
are energy storage, major component of cell membrane and cell signaling.
Simple Lipids or Homolipids: Simple lipids are esters of fatty acid linked with various
alcohols.

• Fats and oils (triglycerides, triacylglycerols)

Compound Lipids or Heterolipids: Heterolipids are fatty acid esters with alcohol and
additional groups. Phospholipids
Derived Lipids: They are derived by hydrolysis from compound and simple lipids. Steroids

Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or large biomolecules, essential for all known forms of life.
Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are
made from monomers known as nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three components: a 5-
carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

DNA RNA

Found in Nucleus of the cell Nucleolus

Function Genetic information Protein synthesis

Structure Double stranded Single stranded

Sugar group Deoxyribose Ribose

Phosphate group Present Present

Nitrogenous bases Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C)
(C)
Uracil (U)
Thymine (T)

Proteins
While nucleic acids carry the genetic information of the cell, the primary responsibility of
proteins is to execute the tasks directed by that information. Each cell contains different
proteins. They perform a wide variety of functions. Proteins direct virtually all activities of
the cell. Greek word proteios means ―of the first rank‖.
 Functions of proteins: Serve as structural components of cells and tissues, transport and
storage of small molecules, transmitting information between cells, providing a defense
against infection. They act as enzymes. Catalyze nearly all the chemical reactions in
biological systems.

Expression of Genetic Information

Gene expression: Gene expression is the process by which the instructions in our DNA are
converted into a functional product, such as a protein. There are two key steps involved in
making a protein 1. Transcription 2. Translation.

Protein structure and function

Proteins are important for functioning of the cell
Amino acids: Proteins are polymers of amino acids. There are 20 amino acids which are
repeatedly found in the structure of proteins. Amino acids are group of organic compounds
having 2 functional groups (-NH2) amino group and (-COOH) carboxylic group. Amino
group is basic whereas carboxylic group is acidic. All amino acids contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen but additionally some of them contain sulphur.

Classification of Amino acids

NO NATURE AMINO ACIDS

1 NEUTRAL: Amino acids with 1 amino group and 1 Glycine (Gly), Alanine (Ala), Valine (Val),
carboxyl group
Leucine (Leu), Isoleucine (Ile)

2 ACIDIC: 1 extra carboxyl group Aspartic acid (Asp), Asparagine (Asn),

 Glutamic acid (Glu), Glutamine (Gln)

3 BASIC: 1 extra amino group Arginine (Arg), Lysine (Lys)

4 S-CONTAINING: Amino acids have sulphur Cysteine (Cys), Methionine (Met)

5 ALCOHOLIC: Amino acids having –OH group Serine (Ser), Threonine (Thr), Tyrosine (Tyr)

6 AROMATIC: Amino acids having cyclic structure Phenylalanine(Phe), Tryptophan (Try)

7 HETEROCYCLIC: Amino acids having nitrogen in ring Histidine (His), Proline (Pro)
structure

Essential amino acids: Histidine (His), Leucine (Leu), Isoleucine (Ile), Lysine (Lys),
Methionine (Met), Phenylalanine(Phe), Threonine (Thr), Tryptophan (Try), Valine (Val).
Non- essential amino acids: Glycine (Gly), Alanine (Ala), Aspartic acid (Asp), Asparagine
(Asn), Glutamic acid (Glu), Glutamine (Gln), Cysteine (Cys), Proline (Pro), Serine (Ser),
Tyrosine (Tyr).
Functions of proteins
Antibodies: Specialized proteins involved in defending the body from antigens.
Contractile Proteins: Responsible for movement. Involved in muscle contraction.

Eg: Actin and Myosin

Enzymes: They act as catalysts. Enhance the biochemical reactions. Eg: Lactase, Pepsin
Hormonal Proteins: Messenger proteins, help to coordinate body activities Eg: Insulin
Structural Proteins: Provide support Eg: Keratin
Storage Proteins: Stores amino acids Eg: Ovalbumin, casein
Transport Proteins : Carrier proteins – move molecules from one place to another place

Eg: Haemoglobin

Cell metabolism
Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body. It requires the use of
enzymes. General Classification of chemical reactions
Anabolic - Those that create larger molecules
Catabolic - Those that breakdown larger molecules into smaller molecules
Cell metabolism / cell respiration produces Carbon dioxide, Water, ATP and Heat
Two types of reactions:
• Anaerobic reactions (without O2) – produce little ATP
• Aerobic reactions (requires O2) – produce most ATP

Production of ATP Overview

C6H1206 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP
Step 1 – Glycolysis
- formation of two pyruvates

Step 2 – Pyruvate oxidative decarboxylation

- formation of two acetyl CoA

Step 3 – Citric Acid Cycle

- end product (oxaloacetate) combines with acetyl CoA to start, forming the same end
product

Step 4 – Electron Transport System

use of high energy protons and electrons (from coenzymes) to power ATP synthesis

Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the central pathway for the glucose catabolism in which glucose (6-carbon
compound) is converted into pyruvate (3-carbon compound) through a sequence of 10 steps.
Glycolysis takes place in both aerobic and anaerobic organisms and is the first step towards
the metabolism of glucose. It occurs in cytosol. It yields two ATP molecules per glucose
molecule.

The overall process of glycolysis results in the following events:

1. Glucose is oxidized into pyruvate.
2. NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
3. ADP is phosphorylated into ATP.

Pyruvate Oxidative Decarboxylation

After glycolysis, pyruvate is converted into acetyl CoA in order to enter the citric acid cycle.
This is mediated by a large enzyme complex (pyruvate dehydrogenase) that converts
pyruvate to Acetyl CoA. This step occurs within the mitochondria. NAD+ is reduced to
NADH, Carbon dioxide is released. This leaves a 2 carbon group (acetyl) to which CoA is
attached. Acetyl CoA is formed.

Kreb’s /TCA /Citric acid cycle

The citric cycle is a central driver of cellular respiration. It takes acetyl CoA produced by
the oxidation of pyruvate and originally derived from glucose—as its starting material and, in
a series of redox reactions, harvests much of its bond energy in the form of NADH , FADH2
,and ATP molecules. The reduced electron carriers NADH , FADH2 generated in the TCA
cycle will pass their electrons into the electron transport chain and, through oxidative
phosphorylation, will generate most of the ATP produced in cellular respiration. It makes an
end product (oxaloacetate) that can start the cycle again.

Electron-Transport Chain
It is the final step in energy generation – most energy released in this step. Electrons of
NADH and FADH2 move through the chain, moving to lower energy level. It occurs in the
inner membrane of the mitochondria. Specialized molecules accept and donate e- as they
move down chain. It creates an electrochemical gradient. As e- move down chain, H+ move
across the membrane, altering the concentration of H+ on either side = gradient. Gradient
used to generate ATP.
Energy released by movement of electrons through transport system is stored temporarily in
H+ gradient. NADH produces a maximum of 2.5 ATP. FADH2 produces a maximum of 1.5
ATP. 1 ATP formed per 3H+ shuttled through ATP synthase. The end of cellular respiration –
It yields 30-32 ATP molecules.

Cells maintain their internal environment

The internal environment of a multicellular organisms consist of interstitial fluid- fills the
spaces between the cells and constantly bathes the cells and keeps the cells functioning and
blood plasma.
Factors affecting internal environment
Physical factors: 1. Temperature 2. Osmotic pressure 3. Concentration of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the bloodstream
Chemical factors: 1. Salt level 2. Glucose level 3. pH
In order for cells of the body to function optimally, the physical factors and the chemical
factors within the internal environment must be maintained at a relatively constant level Eg:
Temperature
Homeostasis : Homeostasis is a process that regulates the chemical and physical parameters
in the internal environment so that the conditions are always suitable to meet the needs of
cells.
Homeostatic control system
There are three functional components
1. Receptor: Detect a change (stimuli)
2. Control center: Receive message from receptors and process the information
3. Effector: Receive message from control center and carry out the appropriate response.
 Negative feedback: It is the
mechanism that maintains the factor at some mean value. It reverses a change. It restores
abnormal values to normal.
Positive feedback: It is the mechanism which will strengthen a change and makes abnormal
values more abnormal. Eg: Platelets formation.
Cells respond to their external environment
The environments in which cells grow often change rapidly. There are some mechanisms for
adjusting their environmental change.The adjustments can take many forms 1. changes in the
activities of preexisting enzyme molecules 2. changes in the rates of synthesis of new
enzyme molecules 3. changes in membrane-transport processes
Chemicals: The detection of environmental signals occur inside the cells. Chemicals could
pass into cells by diffusing through the cell membrane or by the action of transport proteins.
Chemicals will bind directly to proteins present inside the cell and modulate their activities.
Movement: The development of the ability to move was another important stage of cells.
They are capable of adapting to a changing environment. Bacteria swim through the use of
filamentous structures termed flagella. Each bacterial cell has several flagella, which, under
appropriate conditions, form rotating bundles that efficiently propel the cell through the
water. At the base of each flagellum are assemblies of proteins that act as motors to drive its
rotation.
Signals: There are many mechanisms for detecting signals at the cell surface. Cells could
thus respond to signaling molecules even if those molecules did not pass into the cell.
Receptor proteins, embedded in the membrane, could bind chemicals present in the cellular
environment. Binding, produces changes in the protein structure that could be detected at the
inside surface of the cell membrane. By this means, chemicals outside the cell could
influence events inside the cell.
Cells Grow and Reproduce
Prokaryotic cell reproduction - Binary Fission
Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction in which an organism divides into two, each
part carrying one copy of genetic material. It is a type of asexual reproduction typically
observed in prokaryotes and few single-celled eukaryotes. In this method of asexual
reproduction, there is a separation of the parent cell into two new daughter cells.
Step 1- Replication of DNA
The bacterium uncoils and replicates its chromosome, essentially doubling its content.
Step 2- Growth of a Cell
After copying the chromosome, the bacterium starts to grow larger. It is followed by an
increase in cytoplasmic content.
Step 3-Segregation of DNA
The cell elongates with a septum forming at the middle. The two chromosomes are also
separated in this phase.
Step 4- Splitting of Cells
A new cell wall is formed at this phase, and the cell splits at the centre, dividing the parent
cell into two new daughter cells.

Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

Cell cycle: A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides.
Phases in the cell cycle: G1, G2, S, M, G0
 Mitosis
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell
nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei. It is a relatively short period of the cell cycle
and is complex and highly regulated.
Phases in Mitosis
1. Prophase: The nuclear envelope is broken down. The long strands of chromatin
condense to form shorter more visible strands called chromosomes. The nucleolus
disappears. Microtubules attach to the chromosomes at the kinetochores present in the
centromere.
2. Metaphase: In metaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes convene themselves
on the metaphase plate (or equatorial plate), an imaginary line. Chromosomes line up
in the middle of the cell by microtubule organizing centers pushing and pulling on
centromeres of both chromatids thereby causing the chromosome to move to the
center.
3. Anaphase: After the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell, the spindle fibers
will pull them apart and chromosomes are split apart as the sister chromatids move to
opposite sides of the cell
4. Telophase: It is the last stage of the cell cycle in which a cleavage furrow splits the
cells. This occurs through the synthesis of a new nuclear envelopes and reformation of
the nucleolus as the chromosomes decondense.
Cytokinesis: Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei,
cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of
these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the division of the mother
cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell.
 Meiosis
Meiotic cell division occurs in germ cells of all living organism. Meiosis is a process where a
single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the original amount of genetic
information. There are two successive nuclear divisions in meiosis as compared to the one
division found in mitosis.
Meiosis has two nuclear division phases:
Meiosis I also called as Reductional Division
Meiosis II also called as Equational Division
Interphase: The interphase just prior to the entry of cell in to meiosis is known as pre
meiotic interphase.

Meiosis I: Meiosis-I has four different phases or stages:

1. Prophase-I: It occupies the longest duration in Meiosis-I.It is divided into five sub-
stages or sub-phases.

Leptotene: This phase starts immediately after interphase. The size of cell and nucleus
increases. The chromosomes appear long, uncoiled thread-like in structure bearing many
bead-like structures called chromomeres. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus remain as it
is.
Zygotene: Homologous chromosomes come closer and start to pair up along their length.
The pairing of homologous chromosomes is called Synapsis and the paired homologous
chromosomes are referred as bivalents.
Pachytene: The chromosome becomes shorter and thicker. Each chromosome of the
bivalents splits longitudinally to form two chromatids such that bivalents is composed of four
strands and is known as a tetrad. The process of crossing over starts (crossing over; a small
fragment of chromosome exchange between two non-sister chromatids)
Diplotene: In this stage crossing over takes place. Exchange between homologous
chromosomes (two non-sister chromatids) occurs. Then they begin to separate.

Diakinesis: By the end of diakinesis the nuclear membrane and nucleolus get completely
disappeared and the chromosomes are free in the cytoplasm. Spindle fibres begin to form

2. Metaphase-I: The spindle fibres organized between two poles and get attached to the
centromere of chromosomes. Chromosome moves to equator. The bivalent
chromosomes are arranged in the equatorial plate in such a way that 2 metaphasic
plates are formed.
3. Anaphase-I: Spindle fibres contracts and pulls the whole chromosomes to the polar
region. The separated chromosome is known as dyads. Now the separated
chromosome moves toward opposite poles.
4. Telophase-I: Two groups of chromosome formed at each pole and organized into
nuclei. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears. The chromosomes get
uncoiled into chromatin thread. The spindle fibres disappear totally.

Cytokinesis I: It involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, resulting in the formation of

two daughter cells.

Interphase II: The two cells or nuclei thus formed pass through a short stage called
interphase-II. Sometimes, interphase-II is absent. It is the resting phase between meiosis-I
and meiosis-II. It is either very short or may be absent. No DNA synthesis occurs.
Meiosis-II
Meiosis-II is exactly similar to mitosis, so it is also known as meiotic mitosis. In this division,
two haploid chromosomes split longitudinally and distributed equally to form 4 haploid cells.
It completes in 4 stages

1. Prophase-II: The dyads chromosome becomes thicker and shorter. Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus disappear. Spindle fibre starts to form

2. Metaphase-II: The dyads chromosomes come to equatorial plane. Spindle fibres organize
between poles and attaches to centromere of chromosome.

3. Anaphase-II: Centromere of each chromosome divides and sister chromatids separates to

form two daughter chromosome. Spindle fibre contracts and pull the daughter chromosome
apart towards opposite pole.

4. Telophase-II: Chromosome become organizes at respective pole into nuclei. Chromosome

elongates to form thin networks of chromatin. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears
Cytokinesis-II: The result of cytokinesis is four haploid daughter cell .

Difference between mitosis and meiosis

S.No Mitosis Meiosis

1 It occurs in somatic cells It occurs in reproductive cells
2 One cell produces two daughter One cell produces four daughter cells
cells.
3 Only one division per cycle Two division per cycle

Cell differentiation
Cell differentiation may simply be described as the process through which a young and
immature cell evolves in to a specialized cell, reaching its mature form and function. For
such unicellular organisms like bacteria, various life functions occur within a single cell. That
is, such processes as the transport of molecules, metabolism and reproduction all take place
within a single cell given that they are single celled. However, multicellular
organisms require different types of cells for these processes to be possible. Multicellular
organisms begin as undifferentiated masses of cells. Variation in DNA expression and gene
activity determine the differentiation of cells and ultimately their specialization.
All cells contain the same DNA so cells initially have the potential to become any type of
cell. Cell Differentiation is irreversible. All cells in multicellular organism have the same
number of chromosomes and DNA. It influenced by the cell’s environment. Chemical signals
may be released by one cell to influence the development and activity of another cell.
Here, different types of cells play a specific function given that they have varied structures.
For instance, the nerve cells play a crucial role in the transmission of signals to different parts
of the body, blood cells play an important role carrying oxygen to different parts of the body.
The differences in structure and functions between the cells mean that they are specialized
cells. To be able to perform different functions, cells have to become specialized. This
becomes possible through the process referred to as cell specialization.

Specialized cells
Nerve Cells communicate information either by using electric signals (within a cell) or
chemical signals (between cells).
Muscle cells contain protein filaments that slide past one another, producing a contraction
that changes both the length and the shape of the cell

Blood cells are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate organism's principal
means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues
Xylem is the long trachea elements that transport water in a plant.
Phloem is part of a plant that carries food down the stem, and carries sugar, and protein to all
parts of the plant that need them
Stem Cells: They are otherwise called as blank cells. Unspecialized but can give rise to
specialized cells. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to remain a
stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function

Properties of stem cells:

1. They are unspecialized cells.
2. Stem cells can divide and renew themselves for a longer period of time
3. Stem cells can divide and become specific specialized cell types of the body
4. Stem cells can replace dying, old or damaged cells.

Types of stem cells

Totipotent: Each cell can develop into a new individual
Pluripotent: Cells can form any (over 200) cell types
Multipotent: Cells differentiated, but can form a number of other tissues.

Uses of stem cells

Used to test new medicines
Transplantable tissues and organs
Treat diseases including Alzheimer's diseases, spinal cord injury, stroke, burns, heart disease,
diabetes, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer
Bone marrow contains blood-forming stem cells (hematopoietic stem cells) have been used
for decades to treat blood cancers and other blood disorders. Umbilical cord blood is another
source of hematopoietic stem cells that is being used in treatment.