PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

Primary requirements of an aircraft –

• A wing to generate a lift force
• A fuselage to house the payload
• Tail surfaces to add stability
• Control surfaces to change the direction of flight: and
• Engines to make it go forward

Forces acting on an aircraft:

• Weight is force due to the acceleration of gravity
acting upon it in vertically downward direction.
• Lift is the force produced by wings in upward
direction which helps aircraft to take-off by
defying gravity and sustain aircraft in flight.
• Drag is the force produced in direction opposite
to aircraft’s movement due to friction between
aircraft and air molecules.
• Thrust is produced by engines which helps the
aircraft to move in forward direction by
countering drag.
• The greater the weight, the greater the lift requirement.

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• The greater the lift, the greater the drag.
• The greater the drag, the greater the thrust required.

General Definitions:
• Mass (kilogram-Kg): The quantity of matter in a body and is a measure of how
difficult it is to start or stop. Mass influence time and/or distance required to
change the direction of a body.
• Force (Newton – N): It causes a change in motion of a body.
• Weight (Newton – N): The force due to the gravity. (F = m x g), g = 9.81 m/s 2
• Centre of Gravity (CG): Point through which the weight of an aircraft acts and
around which aircraft rotates in flight.
• Work (Joule – J): Work is done on a body when it moves in the direction in
which the force is acting. Work = Force x Distance

• Power (Watt – W): Power is rate of doing work.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 Force (N) x Distance (m)
Power = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

• Energy (Joule – J): The capacity to do work.

• Kinetic Energy (Joule – J): The energy possessed by mass because of its
motion.
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KE = 2mV2

• Velocity (metre per second – m/s): Rate of change of displacement.

• Acceleration (metres per second square – m/s2): Rate of change of velocity
• Momentum (Mass x Velocity – kg m/s): The quantity of motion possessed by
a body.

Newton’s Laws of Motion:

• Inertia Law: It states that a body at rest or in uniform motion will continue to
be in the same position unless and until an external force is acted upon it. It is
opposition which a body offers to a change in motion. Inertia is a quality, but it
is measured in terms of mass.
• Momentum Law: It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is
𝒗
directly proportional to the force applied on it. m 𝒕 ∝ F; F = ma

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• Reaction Law: It states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Atmosphere
The most importance property of atmosphere is air density (“thickness” of air). A
given mass flow will generate the required lift force, but a decrease in air density
will reduce the mass flow thus the speed of the aircraft must be increased to
maintain the mass flow and lift force at its required value.

Physical properties of air:

Air is a compressible fluid and is able to flow or change its shape when subjected
to even minute pressure differences. Air will flow in the direction of lower
pressure. Since air is compressible, lower layers contain much greater part of
whole mass of the atmosphere.

International Standard Atmosphere (ISA):

• To enable accurate comparison of aircraft performance and calibration of
pressure instruments, a ‘standard’ atmosphere has been adopted which
represents mean or average properties of the atmosphere. Mean Sea Level
values:
• Temperature 15° C
• Pressure 1013.25 hPa
• Density 1.225 kg/m3
• Temperature decreases with increasing altitude at a uniform lapse rate of
1.98° C per 1000 ft (approx. 2° C) from mean sea level up to a height of 36090 ft
above which temperature remains constant at -56.5° C.

Air Density (kg/m3):

• Density is mass per unit volume. Density varies with static pressure,
temperature and humidity.

• Temperature – increasing temperature decreases air density. ρ ∝ 1⁄𝑇

• Static Pressure – deceasing static pressure decrease air density. ρ ∝ P
• Humidity – increasing humidity decrease air density. ρ ∝ 1⁄𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦
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 Note: (Density of water vapour is about 5/8 that of dry air)
• Density decreases with increasing altitude because of decreasing static
pressure. However, with increasing altitude temperature also decreases, which
would tend to increase density, but the effect of decreasing static pressure is
dominant.

Density Altitude:
• Hight density altitude means that the conditions that actually exist at the
airport of take-off or landing represent those of a higher altitude in the
international standard Atmosphere.

Static Pressure:
• It is the pressure acting on an object due to column of stationary air above that
object. It is the result of the weight of the atmosphere pressing down on the
air beneath.
• Unit – N/m2 (1 hp (hectopascal) = 1 mb (millibar) = 100 Pa = 100 N/m 2).

Dynamic Pressure (N/m2):

• When the velocity of any moving fluid or object is reduced due to any
obstruction in its path, its kinetic energy is converted to pressure (total energy
remains constant), known as dynamic pressure. Aircraft immersed in moving
airflow will experience both static and dynamic pressure.

• Dynamic pressure (θ) = ½ ρ𝑉 2 𝑁⁄𝑚2

• Total Pressure (Stagnation or Pitot Pressure) = Static Pressure + Dynamic

Pressure

Measuring Dynamic Pressure:

• A sealed tube, open at the forward end called pitot tube is used to collect air
when aircraft is moving and pressure is measured, called “Pitot Pressure”.
• A hole (static vent) in a surface parallel to the airflow will sense static pressure.
• Pitot and static pressure are fed to two different sides of diaphragm, where
static pressure gets cancelled and only dynamic pressure influences
diaphragm movement, indicated by a needle.

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Airspeeds:
• Indicated Airspeed (IAS): It is speed registered on Airspeed Indicator. The
instrument calculates the square root of the dynamic pressure in knots and
indicates indicated airspeed.
• Calibrated Airspeed (CAS): IAS corrected for position or pressure error (due to
position of pitot tube, static vent, a/c altitude & configuration) is called
calibrated airspeed.
• Equivalent Airspeed (EAS): IAS corrected for position and compressibility (at
higher speeds) error is equivalent airspeed.
• True Airspeed (TAS or V): It is the actual speed of the aircraft through the air.
As the instrument is calibrated at ISA sea level density, it gives true airspeed
when density is 1.225 kg/m3. Among all speeds discussed, this is the only speed,
all other discussed so called speeds are pressure.

𝐸𝐴𝑆
TAS = where, б is Relative Density
√б

• Speed of sound (a): Sound is weak pressure waves which propagate

spherically through the atmosphere from their source.

a = 39√𝑇 where, T is in kelvin

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 Note: a is approximately 340 m/s at mean sea level on ISA day.
• Mach Number is relation of speed of aircraft with local speed of sound.

𝑇𝐴𝑆
M= where, a is local speed of sound
𝑎

• Critical Mach Number (MCRIT) – Mach number when the speed of the airflow
over some part of the aircraft (usually point of maximum thickness on the
aerofoil) first reaches the speed of sound.
• Airspeed Indicator: It is a Pressure Gauge. Speed recorded by the airspeed
indicator is called equivalent airspeed (EAS). Many of the handling
characteristics of an aircraft depend mainly on the dynamic pressure, i.e., on
the equivalent airspeed, so it is often more useful to have a direct reading of
EAS than TAS.

Error and Corrections:

• Instrument Error: It is due to imperfections in the design and manufacture of
the instrument and varies from one instrument to another. It is usually very
small and can be disregarded for all practical purpose.
• Position Error: Flow to pitot tube(s) and static port(s) is affected by presence
of aircraft, changes in configuration, aircraft attitude (AOA), speed of aircraft
and proximity to the ground and pitot pressure may be under recorded.
• Compressibility Error: At high speeds, dynamic pressure is not simply ½ ρ V2,
but exceeds it by a factor determined by Mach number. Thus, the airspeed
indicator will over-read.

Because of the errors listed, ‘speed’ recorded on the airspeed indicator is

generally not the equivalent airspeed, instead it is the indicated airspeed.
Corrections to rectify instrument and position errors are determined
experimentally by using special instrument.

Summary:
• Dynamic Pressure (Q) = ½ ρ𝑉 2; where ρ = actual density of air & V = True
Airspeed (TAS).

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 𝑸
• Indicated Airspeed (IAS) = √𝟏 ; where ρ𝑆𝐿 = density of air at MSL (1.225
ρ𝑺𝑳
𝟐

kg/m3).
• Taking off from an airfield with low atmospheric pressure and/or high air
temperature and/or high humidity will require a higher TAS to achieve the
same dynamic pressure (IAS).
• A constant IAS will give constant dynamic pressure.
• Increasing altitude decreases air density because of decreasing static pressure.
Thus, as altitude increases, a higher TAS is required to maintain a constant
dynamic pressure. Maintaining a constant IAS will compensate for changes in
air density.
• Aircraft ‘V’ speeds are CAS except V MO (Maximum operating IAS) which is an
EAS, but all are presented to the pilot in the Flight Manual as IAS.

Aerodynamic Theory
Principle of Continuity:
• Fundamental law of the universe is Energy and Mass can neither be created
nor destroyed, only changed from one form to another.
• The air mass flow, or mass per unit time, through the tube will be the product
of the cross-sectional area (A), the airflow velocity (V) and the Air density (ρ).
• Mass flow will remain a constant value at all points along the tube, it is called
Principle of Continuity (also known as Constant Mass Flow Rate). The Equation
of Continuity is:

A × V × ρ = Constant
• At low subsonic speeds (< M 0.4) density changes will be insignificant and can
be disregarded. The equation of continuity is simplified to:

A x V = constant, or
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Velocity (V) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)

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 Principle of Continuity
Bernoulli’s Theorem:
• “In the steady flow of an ideal fluid the sum of the pressure energy and the
kinetic energy remains constant”. Ideal fluid is incompressible and has no
viscosity.
• If height is constant, pressure energy is constant and Bernaulli’s Equation is
given as:

Pressure energy + Kinetic energy = Constant or:

1
p + 2 ρ 𝑉 2 = Constant

• Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure (constant). This total

pressure can be called as Stagnation pressure or Pitot pressure.

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Aerofoil:
• Flow velocity is dependent on the shape of the object over which it flows. An
increase in velocity will cause an increase in dynamic pressure and a decrease
in static pressure.
• An aerodynamic force, called Lift, to oppose the weight of an aircraft can be
generated by using a specially shaped body called an aerofoil.
• An aerofoil is 2-D profile of the wing, and is designed in aerodynamic shape to
give maximum lift and minimum drag.

An aerofoil shape
Streamlines and the Stream-tube:
• Streamline is the path traced by a particle of air in a steady airflow, & path of
these air molecules do not cross.
• Converging streamlines illustrate an accelerating airflow, with resultant
decreasing pressure and vice versa.
• A stream-tube is an imaginary tube made of streamlines. There is no flow into
or out of the stream-tube through the side walls, only a flow along the tube.

Subsonic Airflow

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Aerofoil Terminology:

1. Aerofoil: A shape capable of producing lift with relatively high efficiency.

2. Leading edge (LE): Leading most point of aerofoil.
3. Trailing Edge (TE): Trailing most point of aerofoil.
4. Chord Line: A straight line joining leading and trailing edge of an aerofoil.
5. Chord: Distance between the leading and trailing edge measured along the
chord line.
6. Angle of Incidence: Angle between the wing root chord line and the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
7. Mean Line or Camber Line: Line joining the leading and trailing edge of an
aerofoil, equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces.
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8. Camber: Distance between mean camber line and chord line.
9. Maximum camber: Maximum distance of the mean line from the chord line
expressed as a percentage of the chord with its location as a percentage of
the chord aft of the leading edge. When the camber line is below the chord
line, it is said to have negative camber. A symmetrical aerofoil has no camber
because chord line and camber line are coincidental.
10. Thickness/Chord Ratio: The maximum thickness or depth of an aerofoil
section expressed as a percentage of the chord, with its location as a
percentage of the chord aft to the leading edge. The thickness and thickness
distribution of the aerofoil section have a great influence on its airflow
characteristics.
11. Leading edge Radius: Radius of curvature of the leading edge.
12. Total Reaction: Resultant of all the aerodynamic forces acting on the aerofoil
section.
13. Centre of Pressure (CP): Point on the chord line through which lift is
considered to act.
14. Lift: Aerodynamic force which acts at 90° to the relative airflow.
15. Drag: Aerodynamic force which acts parallel to and in the same direction as
the relative airflow or opposite to the aircraft flight path.
16. Angle of Attack: (α or alpha) Angle between the chord line and the relative
airflow. Angle between the chord line and effective airflow is referred to as the
Effective Angle of Attack.

Two-Dimensional Airflow:
• As air flows towards an aerofoil, it will be turned towards the lower pressure at
the upper surface; this is termed upwash. After passing over the aerofoil, the
airflow returns to its original position; this is termed as downwash.
• Airflow: It makes no difference to the pressure pattern if the aircraft is moving
through the air or the air is flowing over the aircraft. Relative velocity is the
important factor.

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 Two-dimensional airflow
Influence of Dynamic Pressure:
• If the static pressure on one side of a body is reduced more than on the other
side, a pressure differential will exist.
• If the dynamic pressure (IAS) one same side of body is increased, the pressure
differential will further increase.
• The pressure differential acting on the surface area will produce an upward
acting force. “If the dynamic pressure (IAS) is increased, the upward force will
increase”.

Influence of Angle of Attack on pressure:

• Increasing the angle of attack will increase the pressure differential. Aerofoil
profile i.e., thickness, camber and angle of attack determine the distribution of
velocity and pressure on the surface.
• The greatest positive pressure occurs at the stagnation point near leading edge
(LE) where relative flow velocity is zero. It is at this front stagnation point where
the flow divides to pass over and under the section.
• As the angle of attack increase from -4° , stagnation point moves from upper
surface to the lower surface.

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• Pressure at stagnation point (stagnation pressure) is total pressure (Static +
Dynamic).
• Flow over top section accelerates rapidly inducing decrease in static pressure.
The rate of acceleration increases with increase in angle of attack, up to about
16° .
• Pressure reduces continuously from the stagnation value to a position on the
top surface where a peak negative value is reached. From this point, pressure
increases back to the free stream value.
• At angles of attack less than 8°, the flow on the lower section is accelerated
much less, reducing the pressure to a small negative value, also with
subsequent deceleration and increase in pressure back to the free stream
value near to trailing edge.
• The pressure differential between the leading edge stagnation point and the
lower pressure at the trailing edge creates a force acting backward which is
called ‘form’ (pressure) drag.

Angle of Attack (-4º)

Decrease in pressure above and below
the section are equal and no pressure
differential exists. Thus, no lift force is
produced and it is called as zero lift
angle of attack.
Angle of Attack (-4º to 0º)
More pressure decreases over upper
surface and less decrement over the
lower surface. For a cambered aerofoil, a
small amount of lift is produced even at
small negative angles (-4º to 0º).

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Angle of Attack (0º to 16º)
Increasing the angle of attack increases
the lift force because the acceleration of
airflow over the top surface is increased
by the reduction in effective cross-
sectional area of the local stream tube.
Reduced pressure ‘peak’ moves forward
as the angle of attack increases. The lift
force is result of the pressure differential
between the top and bottom surfaces of
an aerofoil; the greatest contribution to
overall lift comes from the top surface.
Pressure Gradient
The greater the difference in pressure
between two points, the steeper the
pressure gradient. A favourable gradient
is when air pressure is falling in direction
of airflow. Adverse pressure gradient is
when air pressure is rising in the direction
of airflow. (from point of minimum
pressure to the trailing edge). Higher the
angle of attack, the steeper the pressure
gradient.
At angles of attack higher than approx.
16º, extremely steep adverse pressure
gradient prevents air that is flowing over
the top surface from following the aero
foil contour, and flow will separate from
the surface, causing low pressure area on
the top of the section to suddenly
collapse. This condition is known as stall.

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Centre of Pressure (CP):
• Whole surface of the aerofoil contributes to lift, but the point along the chord
where the distributed lift is effectively concentrated (or is considered to be
concentrated) is called as Centre of Pressure. Location of the CP is a function
of camber and angle of attack.

Movement of Centre of Pressure:

• As angle of attack increases from 0º to 16º, CP will move forward. CP
generally moves back during the stall. Note that the CP is at its most forward
location just before the stall (𝑪𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙 ).

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Aerodynamic Pitching Moments:
• Distribution of pressure over a surface produces aerodynamic forces as well as
moments.
• There are two ways to consider the effects of changing angle of attack on the
pitching moment of an aerofoil.
• Changes in the magnitude of lift acting through a moving CP
• Changes in the magnitude of lift always acting through an Aerodynamic
Centre, which is fixed.
• Aerodynamic Centre (AC): The point about which the pitching moment will
remain constant at normal angles of attack is called aerodynamic centre.
• A nose-down pitching moment exists about AC which is the product of a force
(lift at the CP) and an arm (distance from CP to AC).
• Since an increase in angle of attack will increase the lift force, but also move
the CP towards the AC (shortening the arm), the moment about AC remains
same at any angle of attack within normal AoA range.
• At subsonic airflows of less than M 0.4, the AC is located at 25% chord point for
any aerofoil regardless of camber, thickness and angle of attack.

Symmetrical Aerofoil:
• When at zero angle of attack, upper and lower surface forces are equal and
located at the same point. Thus, both lift and moment are zero.

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• With an increase in angle of attack, the upper surface force increases while the
lower surface force decreases. A change in magnitude of lift has taken place
with no change in CP position – a characteristic of symmetrical aerofoil.
• Thus, pitching moment about AC for a symmetrical aerofoil will be zero at
normal angles of attack – one of the advantages of symmetrical aerofoils.

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