Topology-Based Modeling of Textile Structures

and Their Joint Assemblies: Principles,

Algorithms and Limitations Yordan Kyosev
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Yordan Kyosev

Topology-Based
Modeling of Textile
Structures and Their
Joint Assemblies
Principles, Algorithms and Limitations
Topology-Based Modeling of Textile Structures
and Their Joint Assemblies
Yordan Kyosev

Topology-Based Modeling
of Textile Structures
and Their Joint Assemblies
Principles, Algorithms and Limitations

123
Yordan Kyosev
Faculty of Textile and Clothing Technology
Hochschule Niederrhein, University
of Applied Sciences
Mönchengladbach, Germany

ISBN 978-3-030-02540-3 ISBN 978-3-030-02541-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02541-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018960466

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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Preface

This work presents the experience of the author in the area of modelling of textile
structures. For the purpose of the habilitation process, it was possible to submit the
single papers and a short summary about the relations between these. I preferred to
rewrite it and submit as a monograph. This way, all works combined are presented
more systematically and the next generation of modelling experts can find the “dos”
and “don’ts” in the area in one source, or can at least shorten the trials and avoid the
errors in the development of scientific methods.
At the beginning of my Ph.D. time, in 1997, I was sure, it would be easy to
create a virtual yarn, collecting masses and springs, or using beam elements with
FEM. Throughout the long development process, it became clear that the principle
is correct and that it works. Although the principle was clear and working, the
practical implementations for the different kinds of structures caused difficulties.
These difficulties were caused by the complexity of the modern way of computer
assisted investigation of textiles—these require knowledge in several areas in order
to built a proper computer model that would, in the end, actually run and become
useful for engineers. The main required areas are:
• understanding the textiles and textile processes, as these are the main objects of
this investigation;
• good programming skills, because without complex object oriented models, the
levels of the interaction cannot be represented well enough;
• good numerical mathematics skills, because the systems of linear or differential
equations have to be solved in order to get result;
• good (nonlinear) mechanics knowledge, because the yarns and fibers behave as
continuum (fibers) and structures (yarns and textile fabrics);
• tools and knowledge of 3D computer graphics, because without nice visual-
ization, the results cannot be understood and interpreted properly;
• and a bottle of beer (or apple juice, my friends know that I do not like beer) and
a place for walking, in order to overcome the frustration from the debugging
errors during the development.

v
vi Preface

This work tries to give a summary on these areas for the modelling of textile
structures at four scales or levels—filaments, yarns, fabrics and assembly.
Dominating is the scale of the yarn, because the yarn topology determines the main
properties of the fabrics. All equations presented in the following text exist in at
least three versions—on paper, in at least one programming language like Matlab or
C++ and in LaTeX for this work. If during the transfer from one to another version
some error occur, the author asks to excuse this and does not give any guarantee for
correct results, when using the equations. The author is thankful to everybody for
checking the validity of the equations and giving feedback or advice on discovered
mistakes.

Mönchengladbach, Germany Yordan Kyosev

Formal Remark

This work is approved from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at Chemnitz

University of Technology as habilitation work.
Habilitation committee:
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Sophie Gröger, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Holger Cebulla, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Reviewer
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Steffen Marburg, Technische Universität München, Reviewer
Prof. D.Sc. Stepan Lomov, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Reviewer
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Maik Berger, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Member
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Michael Groß, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Member
Submitted in September 2017, public defence on 13, August 2018.

vii
Acknowledgements

The author would like to express his gratitude to all people, involved in different
ways in the development of this work:
• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Holger Cebulla, who motivated me to collect, summarize and
submit my works in the form of a habilitation work
• The three reviewers of this works for their willingness, patience and any critical
comments
• All members of the faculty of mechanical engineering (Maschinenbau) of the
Technical University Chemnitz, for the discussions and their valuable time
• Prof. Dr. Sc. Stepan Lomov, for all valuable discussions and moral support
during the years
• Dipl.-Ing.(TH) Wilfried Renkens, for his trust in me, giving me the task to
develop the algorithms for warp knitted structures in 2006–2009 and for a very
cooperative and the fruitful collaboration at a later time
• Carla Einhaus for making my English text more clear and understandable
• My students and some of them who then became assistants—Katalin Küster,
Anna Rathjens, Alena Cordes, Marcel Beiss, Matthias Aurich, Nora Brinkert,
for their willingness to work in the areas of the textile structures and helping me
with their practical measurements and comparisons to verify my models in the
frame of their theses.
• My family, for giving me never ending time slots in which papa sat in front
of the computer, answering “just a minute”.

ix
Contents

Part I Introduction
1 Introduction and Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Modelling of Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Strategies for Multiscale Modelling of Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Content of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Part II Braided Structures

2 Topology Based Models of Tubular and Flat Braided
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 13
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 13
2.2 State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 13
2.3 3D Models of Braids with Floating Length of Two
(Regular Braids) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 16
2.4 Generalized Model for Yarn Path of Braid with Arbitrary
Floating Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 18
2.5 Multiple Yarns in a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 20
2.5.1 Where Is the Problem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 22
2.5.2 Topology Based Solution of the Mechanical
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5.3 Flat Braids with Multiple Yarns in a Group . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Triaxial Briads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.7 Configuration for Different than 45 Braiding Angle . . . . . . . . . 31
2.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

xi
xii Contents

3 Evaluation of the Properties of Braided Structures

Based on Topological Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 37
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 37
3.2 Relation Between the Braiding Angle and the Elongation
of the Braided Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 37
3.3 Relation Between the Braiding Angle and the Braiding
Diameter During Axial Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Unit Cell Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.5 Yarn Compression and Jamming Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5.1 Notice on the Geometrical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6 Cover Factor for Biaxial Braids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7 Cover Factor for Triaxial Braids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.8 Characteristic Points of the Force-Elongation Diagram . . . . . . . 57
3.9 Yarn Length Per Unit Length of Braid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.10 Weight Per Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4 Process Emulation Based Development of Braided Structures
and Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2 Task Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3 Virtual Machine Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4 Track Based Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4.1 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4.2 Automated Track Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.4.3 Problems with Track Based Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.5 Horn Gear Based Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.6 Automated Carrier Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.6.1 Motion Emulation and Build of Simplified
Virtual Braid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.7 Algorithm Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.8 Simulated Braids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.9 Future Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Part III Knitted Structures

5 Topological Modelling of Knitted Structures . ............. . . . . 91
5.1 Classification of Knitted Structures . . . . ............. . . . . 91
5.2 Scales in the Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . 93
5.3 Structural Elements of Knitted Structures at Meso-scale . . . . . . 95
5.4 Topology Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . 95
Contents xiii

5.5 Loops and Loops Only Based Knitted Structures . . . . . . . . ... 97

5.5.1 Early Analytical Models for Geometry Relations
of Knitted Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 98
5.5.2 Analytical Model of Choi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 99
5.5.3 Extended Analytical Model for Elliptical Yarn
Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 99
5.5.4 Topology Using List of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.5.5 Software for Loop Based Structures on One
or Two Needle Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.6 Hold Loops and Tuck Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.7 Plating Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.7.1 Underlaps in Plated Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.7.2 Transferred Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.8 Plated Loops in Double Needle Bed Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.9 Weft Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.10 Weft and Warp Yarns Reinforced Knitted Structure (MLG) . . . 123
5.11 Other or Modified Structural Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.12 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6 Truss Framework Model for Warp Knitted Structures . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1 Warp Knitted Structures as Truss Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2 Related Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.3 Theoretical Background of the FEM for Truss Based
Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.4 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.5 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.6 Implementation and Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.7 Possible Extension for Double Needle Bed Structures . . . . . . . . 137
6.8 Limitations of the Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.8.1 Stiffness Matrix and Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.8.2 Model Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.8.3 Elasticity Module of the Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Part IV Woven Structures and Sewing Stitches

7 Notes About Topological Methods for Woven Structures . . . . . . . . 151
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.2 Single Layer Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.3 Multiple Layer Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
xiv Contents

7.4 Irregular Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

7.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8 Topology Based Modeling of Sewing Stitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.2 State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.3 Hand Stitch—Class 209 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.4 Lock Stitch—Class 301 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.5 Class 101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.6 More Stitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Part V Multiscale Modelling—Assemblies, Filaments

and Their Software Implementation
9 Extending to Filament Level and Interpolation Issues . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.2 Yarn Cross Section Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.3 Cross Section Definition for Multifilament Modelling . . . . . . . . 171
9.4 Natural Curvature and Artificial Yarn Twist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.5 Interpolation Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
9.6 Too High Resolution at High Curvature Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.7 Highly Different Curvatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.8 Interpolated Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.9 Solution Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.10 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9.11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10 Assembly Level—From Textile Structures to Textile
Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.2 Structural Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.3 Application for 3D Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
10.3.1 Spacer Fabrics with Stepwise Different Thickness . . . . 186
10.3.2 Hollow Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.4 Assembly Position and Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.5 Cutting of Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.6 Stitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Contents xv

11 Data Structures for Multiscale Modelling of Flexible Assemblies

and Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
11.1 Software Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
11.2 Modelling Issue—Levels in Textile Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
11.3 Software Overview—Comparative Analysis of the Available
Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
11.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Part VI Mechanics After Topology—Application of Topological

Based Models for Mechanical Simulations
12 Computational Mechanics of the One Dimensional Continuum
as Refinement of the Topology Based Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12.2 Energy Minimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12.3 Force Equilibrium Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
12.3.1 Continuous Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
12.3.2 Discretised Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
12.3.3 Dimensionless Discretized Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
12.3.4 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
12.3.5 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
12.3.6 Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.4 Force Equilibrium Approach for Textile Structures . . . . . . . . . . 214
12.4.1 Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
12.4.2 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
12.5 Contact Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.6 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
13 Applications of the Topological Generated Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
13.2 Deformations of Weft Knitted Structures With LS-Dyna
and Hyperworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
13.3 Truss and Beam Finite Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
13.4 Digital Chain Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
13.5 Homogenisation for Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
13.6 Further Possible Application Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
13.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Summary About the Topology Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
 Part I
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction and Problem Definition

1.1 Modelling of Textiles

Textiles were used by humans since thousands of years for creating cloths as
comfortable environments for their human bodies. Braided ropes made from flax
fibers, dated to the year 6300–6150 B.C. [7] have been found, which indicates that
the usage of textile products for other applications than clothing goes way back in
time. Contrary to the predictions of my chemistry teacher, who said that after years
the cloths will be created as a thin polymer layer on the human body by spraying
the polymers through a nozzle and no weaving, knitting and sewing will be needed,
the textiles—as fiber based structures—established their position in the daily life
and still enter new markets and areas. Today, the fiber based structures are used
for building replacements of human body parts, for composites in the car and air-
plane industry, for concrete reinforcements and other areas [1], where in the older
time no fibers were applied. The growing applications of fiber based structures also
require the development of methods and tools for their engineering design. Several
methods were developed during last 100 years and allow the prediction of various
properties of some structures, like weight, porosity and maximal density with several
approximations and limitations.
Most commonly used and investigated are the methods for the design of woven
(Fig. 1.1a) structures. Their interlacement can be investigated based on projections
of the horizontal (weft) and vertical (warp) yarns in separated planes. This made the
creation of the geometrical models already possible in early years and the first models
were published long before computers were introduced [15, 34]. Between 1970 and
1980, these models became even more complex, because the mechanical equilibrium
of the yarns with even more properties and details [36] were considered. Despite the
knowledge of the principles and the methods for modelling woven structures, at the
current time only one software package—Wisetex, is known to be able to predict
their mechanical behaviour and to create a realistic geometry of a structure, taking
into account the yarn mechanical properties [27, 43]. The professional CAD systems
are connected to the machine control and are able to render very good photo realistic

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 3

Y. Kyosev, Topology-Based Modeling of Textile Structures and Their Joint
Assemblies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02541-0_1
4 1 Introduction and Problem Definition

Fig. 1.1 Basic textile (yarn based) structures a woven, b flat braided, c tubular braided, d weft
knitted, e warp knitted

images of the structures. Still, they only cover a small area of fabric structures and
do not include any details of the yarn and fabrics mechanics until now.
The braided structures (Fig. 1.1b, c) have the same unit cells as the woven ones.
Because of this, there are several works reporting about the unit cell of the braided
structures, and only few works, in which the structures are generated using a simula-
tion of the production process [2, 16, 35, 39]. The usage of the simulation process for
quick product development is not efficient and the unit cells are not enough for larger
structures. The only industrially applicable software implementation for modelling
of braided structures, currently available online, was developed by the author [22]
and is distributed as TexMind Braider [21].
The knitted structures—both weft and warp knitted—(Fig. 1.1d, e) are built by
interlooping of yarns. Since the loops have a complex 3D geometry, their description
using projections is more complex and the research works are significantly less,
than for woven structures. The basic principle for modelling—based on the few key
points, is also described in the pre-computer time [31] and extended by mechanics
later [37, 38]. The weft knitted structures consist of one yarn per row (Fig. 1.1d)
and computational models and implementations in software can as well be found
for more complex structures, having tucks, missing stitches and transfer [14, 29, 30,
42]. All these works usually consider a topological model and do not perform any
adjustment of the model, based on the real yarn length in the fabrics. The warp knitted
structures (Fig. 1.1d) are produced by interloopings of several yarn groups. Because
the complexity of the possible structures is significantly larger, results of only a few
groups are reported in this area [13, 25, 41] where implementation in industrial
software with proven coverage of really large sets of structures is only known for the
models of the team of the author (Kyosev) and Renkens [18–20, 40]. These models
are initially implemented in the product Warp3D by ALC Computertechnik, Aachen
Germany. Since the year 2009, the software is developed and maintained from the
partial successor of ALC—Texion GmbH, Aachen, Germany for which no public
information about the methods is found anymore. A revised and extended version of
these methods is implemented in the software of TexMind UG [23], developed by
the author.
As this short overview demonstrates, the generalized algorithms, methods and
software for 3D representation of braided and warp knitted structures, these are
1.1 Modelling of Textiles 5

mainly developed and completely by the author. This work presents systematical
representation of these methods and algorithms with their advantages and limitations.

1.2 Strategies for Multiscale Modelling of Textiles

The modelling of the textiles multiple scales—for instance yarn and fiber/filament
level, requires separate algorithms and methods for each scale. The knitted, woven
and braided structures are yarn based and require certain descriptions of the yarn
geometry. There are three popular methods for retrieving the yarn geometry:
• By using image processing of 2D or 3D images, for instance by X-ray micro-
computer tomography [10, 32]. This method can produce accurate data about the
geometry of the fibrous structure and the orientation of the fibers, but is only
applicable for already produced structures. Due to this limitation, it will not be
further discussed within this work.
• Simulating the complete production process [2, 6]. This method is currently still
connected with many computations and with a lot of simulation time. Nevertheless,
considering the rapid development of the computer technic and methods for parallel
processing, it is going to become more popular in the near future.
• Generating the topology of the structure parametrically and refining it by using
some mechanical methods. This approach is the most common one and allows
the generation of a textile geometry in a very short time. One of the first works
regarding woven structures are the ones of Peirce and Kemp [15, 34]. Several
geometrical methods are summarized by Behera and Hari in [3]. The modern
methods considering the mechanical properties of the yarns are usually based on
the minimization of the potential energy of the yarns, as described in the book
of Postle et al. [36]. In the software Wisetex [26–28], the mechanical models
for woven and braided structures are implemented. The geometry of the loops in
knitted structures is investigated by researchers as for instance Leaf [24], Postle
and Munden [37, 38], Hart et al. [11, 12], Goktepe and Harlock [8], Wu [44].
A software, useful for 3D modelling of knitted structures, is the Weft Knit (part
of Wisetex) by Moesen [30] and the different computer realizations of Kyosev
and Renkens [17, 18, 40]. Very good photorealistic simulations of knitted fabrics
at yarn level are reported by Kaldor et al. [14]. They are extended for complete
clothing by Yuksel et al. [45].
Both the techniques, being able to create virtual products without using existing
ones—the simulation of the complete production process and generating topology
of the structures—normally require the use of the yarns as a main object at the first
step. As a second step, the created yarns are filled with filaments and eventually
refined by consideration of the contact between the filaments. The distribution of the
fibers or filaments in the yarns can be based on statistical distribution or based on
some of the methods used by Neckar and Das [33], Grishanov and Lomov [9], using
complete FEM calculations in which the fibers are represented as beams as done by
6 1 Introduction and Problem Definition

Fig. 1.2 Different types of models for description of the geometry of textile structures

Durville in his Multifil package [4, 5] or arbitrary arrangement of the single filaments
in circular or parallel layers as implemented in the packages of the TexMind software
and described by Kyosev in [22].
This work, concentrates on the topological methods. Here the meaning of “topol-
ogy” is the knowledge of the orientation and positions of the yarns (or their axes),
related to the other yarns in the same structure. The topology of the mathematical
meaning, including knot theory etc. does not really help at the current state in the
generation of textile structures. This can turn into the correct scientific approach,
but its methods have to make further developments and reach an applicable level.
The methods used here are named “topological” and not “geometrical”, because they
do not pretend to give exact geometric description of the position of the yarns. The
topological methods define that one yarn (curve) in Fig. 1.2a crosses another (pre-
sented with its cross section, as circle), but do not define explicitly that the curve is
an circular arc, as the case in Fig. 1.2b. The geometrical methods would be more
accurate in the description, but they will be automatically more limited as well. The
circular arc of the case in Fig. 1.2b is only valid for crossing yarns with circular
cross section under some tension. If the yarns are deformable (and in the most cases
these are deformable) the curve changes to another type. Because this is a common
case, for the purpose of this work and for the purpose of the creation of industrial
CAD systems with general use, it was assumed, that the geometrical methods would
lead to more limitations and complexity. The real axial curve of the yarns depends
of course on the mechanical properties of the yarns, the stresses in these and on
the load history of the structures. For calculations of these computational mechan-
ics methods are required, based on force equilibrium or minimum of the potential
energy of the system (Fig. 1.2c). For the long term behavior, the factor time has
to be included and additionally the dynamical effects for high speed loadings and
the relaxation processes, including damages, have to be considered (Fig. 1.2d). This
book limits the content to creating the topology based description of the structures
only. Some methods for applications of the mechanical models are demonstrated in
the last chapters.
1.3 Content of the Book 7

1.3 Content of the Book

The book has seven parts, of which the first one contains this introduction. Part II
covers the braided structures, presenting generalized models for their topology and
application of this model for evaluation of their properties. A separated chapter deals
with universal topological approach for custom braiding machines, in which the
topological orientation is created based on the machine emulation. This method is
more computational intensive, but allows the generation of the geometry for braiding
machines with complex configuration.
Part III is dedicated to the knitted structures. Its main chapter covers the topological
construction of the structural elements of the warp and weft knitted structures. The
next chapter presents one method for the computation of knitted structures, based on
a mesh or truss framework with its implementation issues, advantages and problems.
Part IV gives an overview about the modelling of sewing stitches, as an important
element for the connection of fabrics into assembly. In the same part a small chapter
about woven structures is hosted, only for the sake of completeness. It consists of
a few references and explanations on why the woven structures were not a primary
goal of investigation of the author.
Part V consists of the extension of the yarn level to the filament, fabrics and
assembly. The first chapter presents implementation issues about the multifilament
modelling and rendering of yarn structures. The second chapter is dedicated to the
placing of structural cells in the space and orientation of the fabrics before the sewing
yarns are added. The last chapter in this part gives an overview about the implemen-
tations of the algorithms in software—selection of the environment, levels in the
structures and comparative analysis to another packages.
Part VI “Mechanics after topology” discusses the application of mechanical mod-
els for refinement of the topologically generated textile structures, implemented by
the author. The last chapter presents applications of geometrical models, based on
external computational tools like FEM or digital chain software.

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Comp8: 8th International Conference on Textile Composites, Nottingham, UK (2006)
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7. Gerichhausen, H.: Das blaue Wunder der Region Heinsberg, 1, aufl edn. Heimatverein Wegberg-
Beeck, Wegberg (2011)
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of SIGGRAPH 2008. Held in Los Angeles, California, Aug 2008 (2008)
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Text. Inst. Trans. 49(1), T44–T48 (1958). https://doi.org/10.1080/19447025808660119. http://
www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19447025808660119
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Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manuf. 33(8), 1073–1081 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-
835X(02)00075-1
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Magic World of Textiles, Zagreb (2006)
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Chemnitzer Textiltagung, 24–25 Oktober 2007, pp. 110–117 (2007)
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arbitrary floating length and multiple filaments. Text. Res. J. 86(12), 1270–1279 (2015)
23. Kyosev, Y.K.: Texmind Warp Knitting Editor 3D (2017). www.texmind.com
24. Leaf, G.G.A.: The geometry of a plain knitted loop. J. Text. Inst. 45, T587–605 (1955)
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fabrics. Autex Res. J. 16(2) (2015). https://doi.org/10.1515/aut-2015-0027
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19447023708658809
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dimensional analysis. J. Text. Inst. 58(8), 329–351 (1967)
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dimensional analyses. J. Text. Inst. 58(8), 352–365 (1967)
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42. Shima Seiki: SDS-ONE APEX (2011)
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1145/2185520.2185533
 Part II
Braided Structures
Chapter 2
Topology Based Models of Tubular
and Flat Braided Structures

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents topology based models for the most used braided structures—
tubular and flat braids. The machine types and the rules for their configuration,
including the horn gears and carriers, are well described and analysed and it is
shown, that the geometry of the braids can be predicted by using parametric models.
The presented algorithms and modifications significantly exceed the state of the art.
They present a generalized approach for all kinds of interlacements of tubular and
flat braided structures and allow its implementation in a software for an efficient
design of braids.

2.2 State of the Art

In this chapter, only the work related to the macro-scale 3D geometry of braided
structures will be discussed. The models, presenting only unit cells of the braided
(and woven) fabrics, can be significantly more accurate regarding the unit cell level,
but might be incorrect regarding the macro scale level. The reason for this is, that
not all (woven) unit cell configurations can be produced on braiding machines and
therefore there can be no unit cells of braided structures. During the production of
the braided structures, the carriers can not choose their interlacement points arbitrar-
ily, as this is done by the dobby or jacquard machines during the weaving process.
The interlacement depends on the horn gear configuration, the track and the carrier
arrangement. The natural way for preparing the geometry (and unit cell) of braided
structures require consideration of these three groups of information. The consider-
ation of the exact machine configuration is an important advantage of the developed
method.
The modelling of textiles in 3D using computer systems, is described by Liao and
Adanur [13]. The idea is to sweep a simple 2D closed contour c(u)u ∈ [0, M] along

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 13

Y. Kyosev, Topology-Based Modeling of Textile Structures and Their Joint
Assemblies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02541-0_2
14 2 Topology Based Models of Tubular and Flat Braided Structures

a regular 3D curve in the 3D space γ (s), s ∈ [0, L] with non-vanishing curvature,

in order to receive a tubular surface as sweep object.

G(s, u) = γ (s) + c1 (u) · n(s) + c2 (u) · b(s) (2.1)

where n(s) and b(s) denote the normal and binormal vectors of γ (s) respectively.
They suggest a modified Frenet frame so that the sweep object is valid for very
general cases, which are able to handle trajectory γ consisting of planar and nonplanar
segments, as long as the curvature of each nonplanar segment is not zero. This method
in its digitalized form (where the normals and binormals are computed based on
discrete data set) presents the basic principle of the modelling of yarn surfaces of
textile structures. Implementing this method in C++ and using OpenGL, the author
created a realistic looking 3D simulations of braided fabrics with different structures
around conical and other pulled preforms of diamond and regular braids. How the
coordinates of the yarns are computed exactely, is not given in the paper.
The derivation of the equations for the yarn paths of open braids is given by Rawal
et al. [20, 21], in which the undulations of the yarn is not considered. For instance
for a cylinder these are in the form.

x = r · cos(θ )
y = ±r · sin(θ ) (2.2)
z = r · θ · cot(α)

where r is the nominal radius of the braid and θ = ω · t is the angle of the investigated
point, depending on the angular velocity of the carrier ω around the product axis.
Kyosev et al. [6, 10] used an extended version of these equations, considering the
undulations of the radius r in the places of contact points.

r = rmandr el (z) + d yar n ± 0.5 · d yar n (2.3)

The profile of the mandrel is defined as a function in discretised form rmandr el (z)
before the calculations of each crossing point of the yarns and the stability conditions
of the yarns over the mandrel are checked. The check is based on the equation for
winding bodies from Proshkov [18], based on the geodesic angle of the curve τG ,
the limit friction angle εmax , determined from the static friction coefficient between
the yarn and mandrel μ and the braiding angle α:

tan α ≤ tan τG ≤ tan εmax = μ (2.4)

In this case, the yarns are stable and do not slip around the crossing points, the
complete set of yarn paths is generated and connected using splines, in a similar way
to those, reported by Pastore et al., who used Bezier curves [17] or Bogdanovich [2,
3] and Lomov [15]. This algorithm is tested for parts with rotational symmetry, for
which the stability condition has to be tested once per crossing point with the same
2.2 State of the Art 15

Fig. 2.1 Geometric model of the braid of overbraided mandrel with non constant cross section
with wrong oriented ridges. Simulated image from [10]

Z coordinate and for which the geometry of braids using an elliptical cross section
of the yarns is created as presented in the Fig. 2.1.
Alpyildiz [1] makes use of a pure analytical description of the curves of the yarn
path and describes in detail the equations for the yarn undulations. For regular braids
for instance, the regions of the floating are fixed to a high ±a/2 and the region
between these is presented with a sinus function, so that the equation for the radius
r for the yarns, in which carriers move in counter-clockwise direction looks like:
⎧
 2;
a
⎪
⎪  0 < θ < k1 β/2
⎪
⎪
⎨ a
· sin 2π θ + π
; k1 β
2 β 2 < θ < (k 1 + 1)β/2
r (θ ) = 2 (2.5)
− 2 ; (k 1 + 1)β/2 < θ < (2k 1 + 1)β/2
a
⎪
⎪ 
⎪
⎪
⎩ a
· sin 2π θ + π2 ; (2k 1 + 1)β/2 < θ < (2k 1 + 1)β
2 β

and for those running clockwise in similar way, with changed sign of a/2 and changed
phase in the sinus function regions [1].
Rawal et al. [19] extends and combines these equations for the cases of using
a mandrel of conical cross section and parts, which consist of a combination of
cylindrical and conical regions.
The papers cited above, concentrate on the modeling of three main braiding struc-
tures diamond, regular and Hercules-braided structures covering biaxial and triaxial
braids up to a floating length of three. Unit cells with arbitrary floating length can be
created with Wisetex [14, 16], but it is the responsibility of the user of Wisetex to
obtain the correct topology (from the braiding point of view) and the correct orienta-
tion of the unit cell in the macro geometry of the braided product. The initial models
of Kyosev [6, 7] represent the structures with arbitrary floating length correctly, but
they do not represent braids with several yarns in a group realistically. As explained
in the mentioned work, these have more space between the yarns, if there are more
yarns in a group and thus, can be used for understanding the braid, but not to execute
extended calculations.
16 2 Topology Based Models of Tubular and Flat Braided Structures

2.3 3D Models of Braids with Floating Length of Two

(Regular Braids)

In the modeling works of several authors [1, 10, 19, 22], a small error regarding
the models of regular braids appears. This error is only recognizable by experi-
enced braiders. The mentioned fabrics cannot be produced on any “normal” classi-
cal maypole braiding machine with horn gears. The rectangles in Fig. 2.1 point to
very well visible ridges that are perpendicular and not parallel to the product axis.
Figure 2.2a schematically visualizes once more the orientation of the ridges in the
above-mentioned papers. The visible yarn pieces, which build the visible ridges,
are placed in square mesh as this is done usually during the drawing of the draft
of the structure [4, 5, 7, 12]. In a standard machine, each horn gear rotates in only
one direction. All the carriers moving outside of one horn gear are building a verti-
cal ridge, which is running parallel to the take-off speed vector and to the product
axis as well (Fig. 2.2b). Therefore, during the analysis of the braids, the ridges are
counted and their number gives the number of the horn gears. In order to produce
horizontally oriented ridges, the horn gears have to move the carriers in alternating
directions, meaning the first carrier moves in one direction and the next one carrier
in the opposite direction (Fig. 2.2a). This configuration is only possible on only few
in the world 3D braiding machines with individual drives of the horn gears. It is not
possible for maypole braiding machines to produce the mentioned models, because
all horn gears are connected with certain gears and solely move without changing
the rotation direction during the production.

Fig. 2.2 a Orientation of the ridges in some models of regular braids, not producible on normal
braiding machines, b proper orientation of the ridges of regular braids, c dotted lines show the wrong
pieces, d image with the wrong and corrected yarn pieces, which can be used for adjusting the starting
angle of trigonometrically based models for regular braids. Initial version of the image published
in [9], Kyosev, Yordan, Generalized geometric modeling of tubular and flat braided structures with
arbitrary floating length and multiple filaments, Textile Research Journal, Vol. 86, issue 12, pages
1270–1279, Copyright (C) 2015 SAGE, Reprinted by permission of SAGE Publications
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One principle stands out conspicuously from the history of the last
few years: that no President or Secretary should be allowed the
opportunity of "taking the responsibility" of meddling with the
currency of the country: in other words, the taxation should be
reduced, as soon as in equity and convenience it can be done, so as
to bring down the revenue to a proportion with the wants of the
government. If the general government is to have anything to do
with the currency at all, it should be by such business being made a
separate constitutional function. To let the Treasury overflow,—and
leave its overflowings to be managed at the discretion of one public
servant, removable by one other, is a policy as absurd as dangerous.
The most obvious security lies, not in multiplying checks upon the
officers, but in reducing the overflowings of the Treasury to the
smallest possible amount. This is President Jackson's last recorded
opinion on the subject. It appears worthy to be kept on record.

SECTION II.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
There is less to be said on this head than would be possible in any
other country. When it is known that the United States are troubled
with the large surplus revenue accruing from the sale of the public
lands, the whole story is told. The stranger will hear much
lamentation in the Senate about the increase of the public expenses,
and will see Hon. Members looking as solemn as if the nation were
sinking into a gulf of debt: but the fear and complaint are, not of the
expenditure of money, but of the increase of executive patronage.
The Customs are the chief source of the revenue of the general
government. They are in course of reduction, year by year. The next
great resource is the sale of the public lands. This may be called
inexhaustible; so large is the area yet unoccupied, and so increasing
the influx of settlers.
This happy country is free from the infliction of an excise system; an
exemption which goes far towards making it the most desirable of all
places of residence for manufacturers who value practical freedom in
the management of their private concerns, and honesty among their
work-people. The brewer and glass-manufacturer see the tax-
gatherer's face no oftener than other men. The Post-Office
establishment in America is for the advantage of the people, and not
for purposes of taxation; and every one is satisfied if it pays its own
expenses. A small sum is yielded by patent fees; and also by the
mint. Lighthouse-tolls constitute another item. But all these united
are trifling in comparison with the revenue yielded from the two
great sources, the Customs and the Public Lands.[11]
The expenditures of the general government are for salaries,
pensions, (three or four hundred pounds,) territorial governments,
the mint, surveys, and improvements, the census and other public
documents, and the military and naval establishments.
The largest item in the civil list is the payment to Members of
Congress, who receive eight dollars per day, for the session, and
their travelling expenses. The President's salary is 25,000 dollars.
The Vice-president's 5,000. Each of the Secretaries of State, and the
Postmaster-general's, 6,000. The Attorney-general's, 4,000.
The seven Judges of the Supreme Court are salaried with the same
moderation as other members of the federal government. The Chief
Justice has 5,000 dollars; the six Associate Judges 4,500 each.
The Commissioned Officers of the United States army were, in 1835,
674. Non-commissioned Officers and Privates, 7,547. Total of the
United States army, 8,221.
In the navy, there were, in 1835, 37 Captains, and 40 Masters-
commandant. The navy consisted of 12 ships of the line; 14 first-
class frigates; 3 second-class; 15 sloops of war; 8 schooners and
other small vessels of war.
The revenue and expenditure of most of the States are so small as
to make the annual financial statement resemble the account-books
of a private family. The land tax, the proportion of which varies in
every State, is the chief source of revenue. Licenses, fines, and tolls,
yield other sums. In South Carolina, there is a tax on free people of
colour!
The highest salary that I find paid to the government of a State is
4,000 dollars, (New York and Pennsylvania;) the lowest, 400 dollars,
(Rhode Island.) The other expenses, besides those of government,
are for the defence of the State, (in Pennsylvania, about forty
pounds!) for education, (two thousand pounds, in Pennsylvania, the
same year,) prisons, pensions, and state improvements.[12]
Such is the financial condition of a people of whom few are
individually very wealthy or very poor; who all work; and who
govern themselves, appointing one another to manage their
common affairs. They have had every advantage that nature and
circumstances could give them; and nothing to combat but their own
necessary inexperience. As long as the State expenditure for defence
bears the proportion to education of 40l. to 2,000l., and on to
80,000l., (the amount of the school-tax, now, in Massachusetts,) all
is safe and promising. There is great virtue in figures, dull as they
are to all but the few who love statistics for the sake of what they
indicate. Those which are cited above disclose a condition and a
prospect in the presence of which all fears for the peace and virtue
of the States are shamed. Men who govern themselves and each
other with such moderate means, and for such unimpeachable
objects, are no more likely to lapse into disorder than to submit to
despotism.
 FOOTNOTES:
[8] The value of the cargoes which arrived at Mobile in 1830, was,
Dollars.
By American vessels 69,700
By British 74,435
————
144,135

In 1834, by American vessels 314,072

In 1834, by British 74,739
————
388,811

The value of the cargoes which departed from Mobile

in 1830, was, by American vessels 1,517,663
in 1830, was, by British 476,702
————
1,994,365

In 1834, by American vessels 4,684,326

In 1834, by British 1,585,871
————
6,270,197
[9] "Log-rolling" means co-operation for a point which must be
carried: on a new settlement in the wilds, by neighbours devoting a
day to fell, roll, and build logs, to make a house before night: in a
legislature, by a coterie of members urging on a bill in which they
are interested, and getting it passed in defiance of inquiry and delay.
[10] I have before me a collection of specimens of the colonial, and
early west continental paper currency; such as brought ruin to all
who trusted it. The colonial notes are such as any common printer
might forge. For instance, here is one, on common paper, with a
border of stars, and within it,

"Georgia, 1776.
"These are to certify, That the sum of SIXPENCE sterling, is due
from this Province to the bearer hereof, the same being part of
Twelve Thousand Five Hundred and Seventy-two Pounds
Nineteen Shillings Sterling, voted by Provincial Congress, for
taking up and sinking that Sum already issued.
6d."

Those of the early days of the war have on the back emblems,
varying with the promissory amount, exhibiting bows, arrows, leaves
of the oak, orange, &c.
It would be absurd to argue against all use of a paper currency from
such specimens as these.
[11] See Appendix B.
[12] See Appendix B.
 CHAPTER V.
MORALS OF ECONOMY.

"And yet of your strength there is and can be no clear feeling,

save by what you have prospered in, by what you have done.
Between vague, wavering capability, and fixed, indubitable
performance, what a difference! A certain inarticulate self-
consciousness dwells dimly in us; which only our works can
render articulate, and decisively discernible. Our works are the
mirror wherein the spirit first sees its natural lineaments. Hence,
too, the folly of that impossible precept 'know thyself,' till it be
translated into this partially possible one, 'know what thou canst
work at.'"
Sartor Resartus, p. 166. Boston Edition.

The glory of the world passeth away. One kind of worldly glory
passes away, and another comes. Like a series of clouds sailing by
the moon, and growing dim and dimmer as they go down the sky,
are the transitory glories which are only brightened for an age by
man's smile: dark vapours, which carry no light within themselves.
How many such have floated across the expanse of history, and
melted away! It was once a glory to have a power of life and death
over a patriarchal family: and how mean does this now appear, in
comparison with the power of life and death which every man has
over his own intellect! It was once a glory to be feared: how much
better is it now esteemed to be loved! It was once a glory to lay
down life to escape from one's personal woes: how far higher is it
now seen to be to accept those woes as a boon, and to lay down life
only for truth;—for God and not for self! The heroes of mankind
were once its kings and warriors: we look again now, and find its
truest heroes its martyrs, its poets, its artisans; men not buried
under pyramids or in cathedrals, but whose sepulchre no man
knoweth unto this day. To them the Lord showed the land of
promise, and then buried them on the confines. There are two
aspects under which every individual man may be regarded: as a
solitary being, with inherent powers, and an omnipotent will; a
creator, a king, an inscrutable mystery: and again, as a being
infinitely connected with all other beings, with none but derived
powers, with a heavenly-directed will; a creature, a subject, a
transparent medium through which the workings of principles are to
be eternally revealed. Both these aspects are true, and therefore
reconcilable. The Old World dwelt almost exclusively on the first and
meaner aspect: as men rise to inhabit the new heavens and the new
earth, they will more and more contemplate the other and sublimer.
The old glory of a self-originating power and will is passing away:
and it is becoming more and more plain that a man's highest honour
lies in becoming as clear a medium as possible for the revelations
which are to be made through him: in wiping out every stain, in
correcting every flaw by which the light that is in him may be made
dimness or deception. It was once a glory to defy or evade the laws
of man's physical and moral being; and, in so doing, to encroach
upon the rights of others: it is now beginning to be shown that there
is a higher honour in recognising and obeying the laws of outward
and inward life, and in reverencing instead of appropriating the
privileges of other wards of Providence.
In other words, it was once a glory to be idle, and a shame to work,
—at least with any member or organ but one,—the brain. Yet it is a
law of every man's physical nature that he should work with the
limbs: of every man's moral nature, that he should know: and
knowledge is to be had only by one method; by bringing the ideal
and the actual world into contact, and proving each by the other,
with one's own brain and hands for instruments, and not another's.
There is no actual knowledge even of one's own life, to be had in
any other way. Yet this is the way which men have perversely
refused to acknowledge, while every one is more or less compelled
to practise it. Those who have been able to get through life with the
least possible work have been treated as the happiest: those who
have had the largest share imposed upon them have been passively
pitied as the most miserable. If the experience of the two could have
been visibly or tangibly brought into comparison, the false estimate
would have been long ago banished for ever from human
calculations. If princes and nobles, who have not worked either in
war or in council, men sunk in satiety; if women, shut out of the
world of reality, and compelled by usage to endure the corrosion of
unoccupied thought, and the decay of unemployed powers, were
able to speak fully and truly as they sink into their unearned graves,
it would be found that their lives had been one hollow misery,
redeemed solely by that degree of action that had been permitted to
them, in order that they might, in any wise, live. If the half-starved
artisan, if the negro slave, could, when lying down at length to rest,
see and exhibit the full vision of their own lives, they would complain
far less of too much work than of too little freedom, too little
knowledge, too many wounds through their affections to their
children, their brethren, their race. They would complain that their
work had been of too exclusive a kind; too much in the actual, while
it had been attempted to close the ideal from them. Nor are their
cases alike. The artisan works too much in one way, while too little
in another. The negro slave suffers too much by infliction, and yet
more by privation; but he rarely or never works too much, even with
the limbs. He knows the evil of toil, the reluctance, the lassitude; but
with it he knows also the evil of idleness; the vacuity, the
hopelessness. He has neither the privilege of the brute, to exercise
himself vigorously upon instinct, for an immediate object, to be
gained and forgotten; nor the privilege of the man, to toil, by moral
necessity, with some pain, for results which yield an evergrowing
pleasure. It is not work which is the curse of the slave: he is rarely
so blessed as to know what it is.
If, again, the happiest man who has ever lived on earth, (excepting
the Man of Sorrows, whose depth of peace no one will attempt to
fathom,) could, in passing into the busier life to come, (to which the
present is only the nursery mimicking of human affairs,)
communicate to us what has been the true blessedness of his brief
passage, it would be found to lie in what he had been enabled to do:
not so much blessed in regard to others as to himself; not so much
because he had made inventions, (even such a one as printing:) not
so much because through him countries will be better governed,
men better educated, and some light from the upper world let down
into the lower; (for great things as these are, they are sure to be
done, if not by him, by another;) but because his actual doing, his
joint head and hand-work have revealed to him the truth which lies
about him; and so far, and by the only appointed method, invested
him with heaven while he was upon earth. Such a one might not be
conscious of this as the chief blessedness of his life, (as men are
ever least conscious of what is highest and best in themselves:) he
might put it in another form, saying that mankind were growing
wiser and happier, or that goodness and mercy had followed him all
the days of his life, or that he had found that all evil is only an
aspect of ultimate good: in some such words of faith or hope he
would communicate his inward peace: but the real meaning of the
true workman, if spoken for him by a divine voice, (as spoken by the
divine voice of his life,) is, as has been said, that his complete toil
has enriched him with truth which can be no otherwise obtained,
and which neither the world, nor any one in it, except himself, could
give, nor any power in heaven or earth could take away.
Mankind becomes more clear-sighted to this fact about honour and
blessedness, as time unfolds the sequence of his hieroglyphic scroll;
and a transition in the morals and manners of nations is an
inevitable consequence, slow as men are in deciphering the picture-
writing of the old teacher; unapt as men are in connecting picture
with picture, so as to draw thence a truth, and in the truth, a
prophecy. We must look to new or renovated communities to see
how much has been really learned.
The savage chief, who has never heard the saying "he that would be
chief among you, let him be your servant," feels himself covered
with glory when he paces along in his saddle, gorgeous with
wampum and feathers, while his squaw follows in the dust, bending
under the weight of his shelter, his food, and his children. Wise men
look upon him with all pity and no envy. Higher and higher in
society, the right of the strongest is supposed to involve honour: and
physical is placed above moral strength. The work of the limbs,
wholly repulsive when separated from that of the head, is devolved
upon the weaker, who cannot resist; and hence arises the disgrace
of work, and the honour of being able to keep soul and body
together, more or less luxuriously, without it. The barbaric conqueror
makes his captives work for him. His descendants, who have no
prisoners of war to make slaves of, carry off captives of a helpless
nation, inferior even to themselves in civilisation. The servile class
rises, by almost imperceptible degrees, as the dawn of reason
brightens towards day. The classes by whom the hand-work of
society is done, arrive at being cared for by those who do the head-
work, or no work at all: then they are legislated for, but still as a
common or inferior class, favoured, out of pure bounty, with laws, as
with soup, which are pronounced "excellent for the poor:" then they
begin to open their minds upon legislation for themselves; and a
certain lip-honour is paid them, which would be rejected as insult if
offered to those who nevertheless think themselves highly
meritorious in vouchsafing it.
This is the critical period out of which must arise a new organisation
of society. When it comes to this, a new promise blossoms under the
feet of the lovers of truth. There are many of the hand-workers now
who are on the very borders of the domain of head-work: and, as
the encroachments of those who work not at all have, by this time,
become seriously injurious to the rights of others, there are many
thinkers and persons of learning who are driven over the line, and
become hand-workers; for which they, as they usually afterwards
declare, can never be sufficiently thankful. There is no drowning the
epithalamium with which these two classes celebrate the union of
thought and handicraft. Multitudes press in, or are carried in to the
marriage feast, and a new era of society has begun. The temporary
glory of ease and disgrace of labour pass away like mountain mists,
and the clear sublimity of toil grows upon men's sight.
If, in such an era, a new nation begins its career, what should be
expected from it?
If the organisation of its society were a matter of will; if it had a
disposable moral force, applicable to controllable circumstances, it is
probable that the new nation would take after all old nations, and
not dare to make, perhaps not dream of making, the explicit avowal,
that that which had ever hitherto been a disgrace, except in the eyes
of a very few prophets, had now come out to be a clear honour. This
would be more, perhaps, than even a company of ten or fifteen
millions of men and women would venture to declare, while such
words as Quixotic, Revolutionary, Utopian, remain on the tongues
which wag the most industriously in the old world. But, it so
happens it is never in the power of a whole nation to meet in
convention, and agree what their moral condition shall be. They may
agree upon laws for the furtherance of what is settled to be
honourable, and for the exclusion of some of the law-bred disgraces
of the old world: but it is not in their power to dispense at will the
subtle radiance of moral glory, any more than to dye their scenery
with rainbow hues because they have got hold of a prism. Moral
persuasions grow out of preceding circumstances, as institutions do;
and conviction is not communicable where the evidence is not of a
communicable kind. The advantage of the new nation over the old
will be no more than that its individual members are more open to
conviction, from being more accessible to evidence, less burdened
with antique forms and institutions, and partial privileges, so called.
The result will probably be that some members of the new society
will follow the ancient fashion of considering work a humiliation;
while, upon the whole, labour will be more honoured than it has
ever been before.
America is in the singular position of being nearly equally divided
between a low degree of the ancient barbarism in relation to labour,
and a high degree of the modern enlightenment. Wherever there is
a servile class, work is considered a disgrace, unless it bears some
other name, and is of an exclusive character. In the free States,
labour is more really and heartily honoured than, perhaps, in any
other part of the civilised world. The most extraordinary, and least
pleasant circumstance in the case is that, while the south ridicules
and despises the north for what is its very highest honour, the north
feels somewhat uneasy and sore under the contempt. It is true that
it is from necessity that every man there works; but, whatever be
the cause, the fact is a noble one, worthy of all rejoicing: and it were
to be wished that the north could readily and serenely, at all times,
and in disregard of all jibes, admit the fact, as matter for
thankfulness, that there every man works for his bread with his own
head and hands.
How do the two parties in reality spend their days?
In the north, the children all go to school, and work there, more or
less. As they grow up, they part off into the greatest variety of
employments. The youths must, without exception, work hard; or
they had better drown themselves. Whether they are to be lawyers,
or otherwise professional; or merchants, manufacturers, farmers, or
citizens, they have everything to do for themselves. A very large
proportion of them have, while learning their future business, to
earn the means of learning. There is much manual labour in the
country colleges; much teaching in the vacations done by students.
Many a great man in Congress was seen in his boyhood leading his
father's horses to water; and, in his youth, guiding the plough in his
father's field. There is probably hardly a man in New England who
cannot ride, drive, and tend his own horse; scarcely a clergyman,
lawyer, or physician, who, if deprived of his profession, could not
support himself by manual labour. Nor, on the other hand, is there
any farmer or citizen who is not, more or less, a student and thinker.
Not only are all capable of discharging their political duty of self-
government; but all have somewhat idealised their life. All have
looked abroad, at least so far as to understand the foreign relations
of their own country: most, I believe, have gone further, and can
contemplate the foreign relations of their own being. Some one
great mind, at least, has almost every individual entered into
sympathy with; some divine, or politician, or poet, who has carried
the spirit out beyond the circle of home, State, and country, into the
ideal world. It is even possible to trace, in the conversation of some
who have the least leisure for reading, the influence of some one of
the rich sayings, the diamonds and pearls which have dropped from
the lips of genius, to shine in the hearts of all humanity. Some one
such saying may be perceived to have moulded the thoughts, and
shaped the aims, and become the under-current of the whole life of
a thinking and labouring man. Such sayings being hackneyed
signifies nothing, while the individuals blessed by them do not know
it, and hold them in their inmost hearts, unvexed by hearing them
echoed by careless tongues. "Am I not a man and a brother?"
"Happy the man whose wish and care," &c. "The breaking waves
dashed high," &c. (Mrs. Hemans's Landing of the Pilgrims,) "What
shadows we are, and what shadows we pursue," (Burke)—these are
some of the words which, sinking deep into the hearts of busy men,
spring up in a harvest of thoughts and acts.
There are a few young men, esteemed the least happy members of
the community, who inherit wealth. The time will come, when the
society is somewhat older, when it will be understood that wealth
need not preclude work: but at present, there are no individuals so
forlorn, in the northern States, as young men of fortune. Men who
have shown energy and skill in working their way in society are
preferred for political representatives: there is no scientific or literary
class, for such individuals to fall into: all the world is busy around
them, and they are reduced to the predicament, unhappily the most
dreaded of all in the United States, of standing alone. Their method,
therefore, is to spend their money as fast as possible, and begin the
world like other men. I am stating this as matter of fact; not as
being reasonable and right.
As for the women of the northern States, most have the blessing of
work, though not of the extent and variety which will hereafter be
seen to be necessary for the happiness of their lives. All married
women, except the ladies of rich merchants and others, are liable to
have their hands full of household occupation, from the uncertainty
of domestic service; a topic to be referred to hereafter. Women who
do not marry have, in many instances, to work for their support;
and, as will be shown in another connexion, under peculiar
disadvantages. Work, on the whole, may be considered the rule, and
vacuity the exception.[13]
What is life in the slave States, in respect of work?
There are two classes, the servile and the imperious, between whom
there is a great gulf fixed. The servile class has not even the benefit
of hearty toil. No solemn truths sink down into them, to cheer their
hearts, stimulate their minds, and nerve their hands. Their wretched
lives are passed between an utter debasement of the will, and a
conflict of the will with external force.
The other class is in circumstances as unfavourable as the least
happy order of persons in the old world. The means of educating
children are so meagre[14] that young people begin life under great
disadvantages. The vicious fundamental principle of morals in a slave
country, that labour is disgraceful, taints the infant mind with a stain
which is as fatal in the world of spirits as the negro tinge is at
present in the world of society. It made my heart ache to hear the
little children unconsciously uttering thoughts with which no true
religion, no true philosophy can coexist. "Do you think I shall work?"
"O, you must not touch the poker here." "You must not do this or
that for yourself: the negroes will be offended, and it won't do for a
lady to do so." "Poor thing! she has to teach: if she had come here,
she might have married a rich man, perhaps." "Mamma has so much
a-year now, so we have not to do our work at home, or any trouble.
'Tis such a comfort!"—When children at school call everything that
pleases them "gentlemanly," and pity all (but slaves) who have to
work, and talk of marrying early for an establishment, it is all over
with them. A more hopeless state of degradation can hardly be
conceived of, however they may ride, and play the harp, and sing
Italian, and teach their slaves what they call religion.
"Poor things!" may be said of such, in return. They know little, with
their horror of work, of what awaits them. Theirs is destined to be, if
their wish of an establishment is fulfilled, a life of toil, irksome and
unhonoured. They escape the name; but they are doomed to
undergo the worst of the reality. Their husbands are not to be
envied, though they do ride on white horses, (the slave's highest
conception of bliss,) lie down to repose in hot weather, and spend
their hours between the discharge of hospitality and the
superintendence of their estates; and the highly honourable and
laborious charge of public affairs. But the wives of slave-holders are,
as they and their husbands declare, as much slaves as their negroes.
If they will not have everything go to rack and ruin around them,
they must superintend every household operation, from the cellar to
the garrets: for there is nothing that slaves can do well. While the
slaves are perpetually at one's heels, lolling against the bed-posts
before one rises in the morning, standing behind the chairs, leaning
on the sofa, officiously undertaking, and invariably spoiling
everything that one had rather do for one's-self, the smallest
possible amount of real service is performed. The lady of the house
carries her huge bunch of keys, (for every consumable thing must be
locked up,) and has to give out, on incessant requests, whatever is
wanted for the household. She is for ever superintending, and trying
to keep things straight, without the slightest hope of attaining
anything like leisure and comfort. What is there in retinue, in the
reputation of ease and luxury, which can compensate for toils and
cares of this nature? How much happier must be the lot of a village
milliner, or of the artisan's wife who sweeps her own floors, and
cooks her husband's dinner, than that of the planter's lady with
twenty slaves to wait upon her; her sons migrating because work is
out of the question, and they have not the means to buy estates;
and her daughters with no better prospect than marrying, as she has
done, to toil as she does!
Some few of these ladies are among the strongest-minded and most
remarkable women I have ever known. There are great draw-backs,
(as will be seen hereafter,) but their mental vigour is occasionally
proportioned to their responsibility. Women who have to rule over a
barbarous society, (small though it be,) to make and enforce laws,
provide for all the physical wants, and regulate the entire habits of a
number of persons who can in no respect take care of themselves,
must be strong and strongly disciplined, if they in any degree
discharge this duty. Those who shrink from it become perhaps the
weakest women I have anywhere seen: selfishly timid, humblingly
dependent, languid in body, and with minds of no reach at all. These
two extremes are found in the slave States, in the most striking
opposition. It is worthy of note, that I never found there a woman
strong enough voluntarily to brave the woes of life in the presence
of slavery; nor any woman weak enough to extenuate the vices of
the system; each knowing, prior to experience, what those woes and
vices are.
There are a few unhappy persons in the slave States, too few, I
believe, to be called a class, who strongly exemplify the
consequences of such a principle of morals as that work is a
disgrace. There are a few, called by the slaves "mean whites;"
signifying whites who work with the hands. Where there is a
coloured servile class, whose colour has become a disgrace through
their servitude, two results are inevitable: that those who have the
colour without the servitude are disgraced among the whites; and
those who have the servitude without the colour are as deeply
disgraced among the coloured. More intensely than white work-
people are looked down upon at Port-au-Prince, are the "mean
whites" despised by the slaves of the Carolinas. They make the
most, of course, of the only opportunity they can ever have of doing
what they see their superiors do,—despising their fellow-creatures.
No inducement would be sufficient to bring honest, independent
men into the constant presence of double-distilled hatred and
contempt like this; and the general character of the "mean whites"
may therefore be anticipated. They are usually men who have no
prospect, no chance elsewhere; the lowest of the low.
When I say that no inducement would be sufficient, I mean no
politic inducement. There are inducements of the same force as
those which drew martyrs of old into the presence of savage beasts
in the amphitheatre, which guided Howard through the gloom of
prisons, and strengthened Guyon of Marseilles to offer himself a
certain victim to the plague,—there are inducements of such force as
this which carry down families to dwell in the midst of contempt and
danger, where everything is lost but,—the one object which carries
them there. "Mean whites" these friends of the oppressed fugitive
may be in the eyes of all around them; but how they stand in the
eye of One whose thoughts are not as our thoughts, may some day
be revealed. To themselves it is enough that their object is gained.
They do not want praise; they are above it: and they have shown
that they can do without sympathy. It is enough to commend them
to their own peace of heart.

SECTION I.
MORALS OF SLAVERY.
This title is not written down in a spirit of mockery; though there
appears to be a mockery somewhere, when we contrast slavery with
the principles and the rule which are the test of all American
institutions:—the principles that all men are born free and equal;
that rulers derive their just powers from the consent of the
governed; and the rule of reciprocal justice. This discrepancy
between principles and practice needs no more words. But the
institution of slavery exists; and what we have to see is what the
morals are of the society which is subject to it.
What social virtues are possible in a society of which injustice is the
primary characteristic? in a society which is divided into two classes,
the servile and the imperious?
The most obvious is Mercy. Nowhere, perhaps, can more touching
exercises of mercy be seen than here. It must be remembered that
the greater number of slave-holders have no other idea than of
holding slaves. Their fathers did it: they themselves have never
known the coloured race treated otherwise than as inferior beings,
born to work for and to teaze the whites; helpless, improvident,
open to no higher inducements than indulgence and praise; capable
of nothing but entire dependence. The good affections of slave-
holders like these show themselves in the form of mercy; which is as
beautiful to witness as mercy, made a substitute for justice, can ever
be. I saw endless manifestations of mercy, as well as of its opposite.
The thoughtfulness of masters, mistresses, and their children about,
not only the comforts, but the indulgences of their slaves, was a
frequent subject of admiration with me. Kind masters are liberal in
the expenditure of money, and (what is better) of thought, in
gratifying the whims and fancies of their negroes. They make large
sacrifices occasionally for the social or domestic advantage of their
people; and use great forbearance in the exercise of the power
conferred upon them by law and custom.
At the time when the cholera was ravaging South Carolina, a wealthy
slave-holder there refused to leave the State, as most of his
neighbours were doing. He would not consent to take any further
care of himself than riding to a distance from his plantation (then
overrun by the disease) to sleep. All day he was among his slaves:
nursing them with his own hands; putting them into the bath, giving
them medicine himself, and cheering their spirits by his presence
and his care. He saved them almost all. No one will suppose this one
of the ordinary cases where a master has his slaves taken care of as
property, not as men. Sordid considerations of that kind must have
given way before the terrors of the plague. A far higher strength
than that of self-interest was necessary to carry this gentleman
through such a work as this; and it was no other than mercy.
Again:—a young man, full of the southern pride, one of whose aims
is to have as great a display of negroes as possible, married a young
lady who, soon after her marriage, showed an imperious and cruel
temper towards her slaves. Her husband gently remonstrated. She
did not mend. He warned her, that he would not allow beings, for
whose comfort he was responsible, to be oppressed; and that, if she
compelled him to it, he would deprive her of the power she misused.
Still she did not mend. He one day came and told her that he had
sold all his domestic slaves, for their own sakes. He told her that he
would always give her money enough to hire free service, when it
was to be had; and that when it was not, he would cheerfully bear,
and help her to bear, the domestic inconveniences which must arise
from their having no servants. He kept his word. It rarely happens
that free service can be hired; and this proud gentleman assists his
wife's labours with his own hands; and (what is more) endures with
all cheerfulness the ignominy of having no slaves.
Nothing struck me more than the patience of slave-owners. In this
virtue they probably surpass the whole Christian world;—I mean in
their patience with their slaves; for one cannot much praise their
patience with the abolitionists, or with the tariff; or in some other
cases of political vexation. When I considered how they love to be
called "fiery southerners," I could not but marvel at their mild
forbearance under the hourly provocations to which they are liable in
their homes.[15] It is found that such a degree of this virtue can be
obtained only by long habit. Persons from New England, France, or
England, becoming slave-holders, are found to be the most severe
masters and mistresses, however good their tempers may always
have appeared previously. They cannot, like the native proprietor, sit
waiting half an hour for the second course, or see everything done
in the worst possible manner; their rooms dirty, their property
wasted, their plans frustrated, their infants slighted, themselves
deluded by artifices,—they cannot, like the native proprietor, endure
all this unruffled. It seems to me that every slave-holder's temper is
subjected to a discipline which must either ruin or perfect it. While
we know that many tempers are thus ruined, and must mourn for
the unhappy creatures who cannot escape from their tyranny, it is
evident, on the other hand, that many tempers are to be met with
which should shame down and silence for ever the irritability of
some whose daily life is passed under circumstances of comparative
ease.
This mercy, indulgence, patience, was often pleaded to me in
defence of the system, or in aggravation of the faults of intractable
slaves. The fallacy of this is so gross as not to need exposure
anywhere but on the spot. I was heart-sick of being told of the
ingratitude of slaves, and weary of explaining that indulgence can
never atone for injury: that the extremest pampering, for a life-time,
is no equivalent for rights withheld, no reparation for irreparable
injustice. What are the greatest possible amounts of finery,
sweetmeats, dances, gratuities, and kind words and looks, in
exchange for political, social, and domestic existence? for body and
spirit? Is it not true that the life is more than meat, and the body
than raiment?
This fallacious plea was urged upon me by three different persons,
esteemed enlightened and religious, in relation to one case. The
case was this. A lady of fortune carried into her husband's
establishment, when she married, several slaves, and among them a
girl two years younger than herself, who had been brought up under
her, and who was employed as her own maid. The little slaves are
accustomed to play freely with the children of the family—a practice
which was lauded to me, but which never had any beauty in my
eyes, seeing, as I did, the injury to the white children from
unrestricted intercourse with the degraded race, and looking forward
as I did to the time when they must separate into the servile and
imperious. Mrs. —— had been unusually indulgent to this girl, having
allowed her time and opportunity for religious and other instruction,
and favoured her in every way. One night, when the girl was
undressing her, the lady expressed her fondness for her, and said,
among other things: "When I die you shall be free;"—a dangerous
thing to say to a slave only two years younger than herself. In a
short time the lady was taken ill,—with a strange, mysterious illness,
which no doctor could alleviate. One of her friends, who suspected
foul play, took the sufferer entirely under her own charge, when she
seemed to be dying. She revived; and as soon as she was well
enough to have a will of her own again, would be waited on by no
one but her favourite slave. She grew worse. She alternated thus,
for some time, according as she was under the care of this slave or
of her friend. At last, the friend excluded from her chamber every
one but the physicians: took in the medicines at the room door from
the hands of the slave, and locked them up. They were all analysed
by a physician, and arsenic found in every one of them. The lady
partially recovered; but I was shocked at the traces of suffering in
her whole appearance. The girl's guilt was brought clearly home to
her. There never was a case of more cruel, deliberate intention to
murder. If ever slave deserved the gallows, (which ought to be
questionable to the most decided minds,) this girl did. What was
done? The lady was tenderhearted, and could not bear to have her
hanged. This was natural enough; but what did she therefore do?
keep her under her own eye, that she might at least poison nobody
else, and perhaps be touched and reclaimed by the clemency of the
person she would have murdered? No. The lady sold her.
I was actually called upon to admire the lady's conduct; and was
asked whether the ingratitude of the girl was not inconceivable, and
her hypocrisy too; for she used to lecture her mistress and her
mistress's friends for being so irreligious as to go to parties on
Saturday nights, when they should have been preparing their minds
for Sunday. Was not the hypocrisy of the girl inconceivable? and her
ingratitude for her mistress's favours? No. The girl had no other idea
of religion,—could have no other than that it consists in
observances, and, wicked as she was, her wickedness could not be
called ingratitude, for she was more injured than favoured, after all.
All indulgences that could be heaped upon her were still less than
her due, and her mistress remained infinitely her debtor.
Little can be said of the purity of manners of the whites of the
south; but there is purity. Some few examples of domestic fidelity
may be found: few enough, by the confession of residents on the
spot; but those individuals who have resisted the contagion of the
vice amidst which they dwell are pure. Every man who resides on his
plantation may have his harem, and has every inducement of
custom, and of pecuniary gain,[16] to tempt him to the common
practice. Those who, notwithstanding, keep their homes undefiled
may be considered as of incorruptible purity.
Here, alas! ends my catalogue of the virtues which are of possible
exercise by slave-holders towards their labourers. The inherent
injustice of the system extinguishes all others, and nourishes a
whole harvest of false morals towards the rest of society.
The personal oppression of the negroes is the grossest vice which
strikes a stranger in the country. It can never be otherwise when
human beings are wholly subjected to the will of other human
beings, who are under no other external control than the law which
forbids killing and maiming;—a law which it is difficult to enforce in
individual cases. A fine slave was walking about in Columbia, South
Carolina, when I was there, nearly helpless and useless from the
following causes. His master was fond of him, and the slave enjoyed
the rare distinction of never having been flogged. One day, his
master's child, supposed to be under his care at the time, fell down
and hurt itself. The master flew into a passion, ordered the slave to
be instantly flogged, and would not hear a single word the man had
to say. As soon as the flogging was over, the slave went into the
back yard, where there was an axe and a block, and struck off the
upper half of his right hand. He went and held up the bleeding hand
before his master, saying, "You have mortified me, so I have made
myself useless. Now you must maintain me as long as I live." It
came out that the child had been under the charge of another
person.
There are, as is well known throughout the country, houses in the
free States which are open to fugitive slaves, and where they are
concealed till the search for them is over. I know some of the secrets
of such places; and can mention two cases, among many, of
runaways, which show how horrible is the tyranny which the slave
system authorises men to inflict on each other. A negro had found
his way to one of these friendly houses; and had been so skilfully
concealed, that repeated searches by his master, (who had followed
for the purpose of recovering him,) and by constables, had been in
vain. After three weeks of this seclusion, the negro became weary,
and entreated of his host to be permitted to look out of the window.
His host strongly advised him to keep quiet, as it was pretty certain
that his master had not given him up. When the host had left him,
however, the negro came out of his hiding-place, and went to the
window. He met the eye of his master, who was looking up from the
street. The poor slave was obliged to return to his bondage.
A young negress had escaped in like manner; was in like manner
concealed; and was alarmed by constables, under the direction of
her master, entering the house in pursuit of her, when she had had
reason to believe that the search was over. She flew up stairs to her
chamber in the third story, and drove a heavy article of furniture
against the door. The constables pushed in, notwithstanding, and
the girl leaped from the window into the paved street. Her master
looked at her as she lay, declared she would never be good for
anything again, and went back into the south. The poor creature,
her body bruised, and her limbs fractured, was taken up, and kindly
nursed; and she is now maintained in Boston, in her maimed
condition, by the charity of some ladies there.
The following story has found its way into the northern States (as
few such stories do) from the circumstance that a New Hampshire
family are concerned in it. It has excited due horror wherever it is
known; and it is to be hoped that it will lead to the exposure of more
facts of the same kind, since it is but too certain that they are
common.
A New Hampshire gentleman went down into Louisiana, many years
ago, to take a plantation. He pursued the usual method; borrowing
money largely to begin with, paying high interest, and clearing off
his debt, year by year, as his crops were sold. He followed another
custom there; taking a Quadroon wife: a mistress, in the eye of the
law, since there can be no legal marriage between whites and
persons of any degree of colour: but, in nature and in reason, the
woman he took home was his wife. She was a well-principled,
amiable, well-educated woman; and they lived happily together for
twenty years. She had only the slightest possible tinge of colour.
Knowing the law that the children of slaves are to follow the fortunes
of the mother, she warned her husband that she was not free, an
ancestress having been a slave, and the legal act of manumission
having never been performed. The husband promised to look to it:
but neglected it. At the end of twenty years, one died, and the other
shortly followed, leaving daughters; whether two or three, I have
not been able to ascertain with positive certainty; but I have reason
to believe three, of the ages of fifteen, seventeen, and eighteen:
beautiful girls, with no perceptible mulatto tinge. The brother of their
father came down from New Hampshire to settle the affairs; and he
supposed, as every one else did, that the deceased had been
wealthy. He was pleased with his nieces, and promised to carry them
back with him into New Hampshire, and (as they were to all
appearance perfectly white) to introduce them into the society which
by education they were fitted for. It appeared, however, that their
father had died insolvent. The deficiency was very small: but it was
necessary to make an inventory of the effects, to deliver to the
creditors. This was done by the brother,—the executor. Some of the
creditors called on him, and complained that he had not delivered in
a faithful inventory. He declared he had. No: the number of slaves
was not accurately set down: he had omitted the daughters. The
executor was overwhelmed with horror, and asked time for thought.
He went round among the creditors, appealing to their mercy: but
they answered that these young ladies were "a first-rate article," too
valuable to be relinquished. He next offered, (though he had himself
six children, and very little money,) all he had for the redemption of
his nieces; alleging that it was more than they would bring in the
market for house or field labour. This was refused with scorn. It was
said that there were other purposes for which the girls would bring
more than for field or house labour. The uncle was in despair, and
felt strongly tempted to wish their death rather than their surrender
to such a fate as was before them. He told them, abruptly, what was
their prospect. He declares that he never before beheld human grief;
never before heard the voice of anguish. They never ate, nor slept,
nor separated from each other, till the day when they were taken
into the New Orleans slave-market. There they were sold,
separately, at high prices, for the vilest of purposes: and where each
is gone, no one knows. They are, for the present, lost. But they will
arise to the light in the day of retribution.
It is a common boast in the south that there is less vice in their cities
than in those of the north. This can never, as a matter of fact, have
been ascertained; as the proceedings of slave households are, or
may be, a secret: and in the north, what licentiousness there is may
be detected. But such comparisons are bad. Let any one look at the
positive licentiousness of the south, and declare if, in such a state of
society, there can be any security for domestic purity and peace. The
Quadroon connexions in New Orleans are all but universal, as I was
assured on the spot by ladies who cannot be mistaken. The history
of such connexions is a melancholy one: but it ought to be made
known while there are any who boast of the superior morals of New
Orleans, on account of the decent quietness of the streets and
theatres.
The Quadroon girls of New Orleans are brought up by their mothers
to be what they have been; the mistresses of white gentlemen. The
boys are some of them sent to France; some placed on land in the
back of the State; and some are sold in the slave-market. They
marry women of a somewhat darker colour than their own; the
women of their own colour objecting to them, "ils sont si
dégoutants!" The girls are highly educated, externally, and are,
probably, as beautiful and accomplished a set of women as can be
found. Every young man early selects one, and establishes her in
one of those pretty and peculiar houses, whole rows of which may
be seen in the Remparts. The connexion now and then lasts for life:
usually for several years. In the latter case, when the time comes for
the gentleman to take a white wife, the dreadful news reaches his
Quadroon partner, either by a letter entitling her to call the house
and furniture her own, or by the newspaper which announces his
marriage. The Quadroon ladies are rarely or never known to form a
second connexion. Many commit suicide: more die brokenhearted.
Some men continue the connexion after marriage. Every Quadroon
woman believes that her partner will prove an exception to the rule
of desertion. Every white lady believes that her husband has been
an exception to the rule of seduction.
What security for domestic purity and peace there can be where
every man has had two connexions, one of which must be
concealed; and two families, whose existence must not be known to
each other; where the conjugal relation begins in treachery, and
must be carried on with a heavy secret in the husband's breast, no
words are needed to explain. If this is the system which is boasted
of as a purer than ordinary state of morals, what is to be thought of
the ordinary state? It can only be hoped that the boast is an empty
one.
There is no occasion to explain the management of the female
slaves on estates where the object is to rear as many as possible,
like stock, for the southern market: nor to point out the boundless
licentiousness caused by the practice: a practice which wrung from
the wife of a planter, in the bitterness of her heart, the declaration
that a planter's wife was only "the chief slave of the harem." Mr.
Madison avowed that the licentiousness of Virginian plantations
stopped just short of destruction; and that it was understood that
the female slaves were to become mothers at fifteen.
A gentleman of the highest character, a southern planter, observed,
in conversation with a friend, that little was known, out of bounds,
of the reasons of the new laws by which emancipation was made so
difficult as it is. He said that the very general connexion of white
gentlemen with their female slaves introduced a mulatto race whose
numbers would become dangerous, if the affections of their white
parents were permitted to render them free. The liberty of
emancipating them was therefore abolished, while that of selling
them remained. There are persons who weakly trust to the force of
the parental affection for putting an end to slavery, when the
amalgamation of the races shall have gone so far as to involve a
sufficient number! I actually heard this from the lips of a clergyman
in the south. Yet these planters, who sell their own offspring to fill
their purses, who have such offspring for the sake of filling their
purses, dare to raise the cry of "amalgamation" against the
abolitionists of the north, not one of whom has, as far as evidence
can show, conceived the idea of a mixture of the races. It is from
the south, where this mixture is hourly encouraged, that the canting
and groundless reproach has come. I met with no candid southerner
who was not full of shame at the monstrous hypocrisy.
It is well known that the most savage violences that are now heard
of in the world take place in the southern and western States of
America. Burning alive, cutting the heart out, and sticking it on the
point of a knife, and other such diabolical deeds, the result of the
deepest hatred of which the human heart is capable, are heard of
only there. The frequency of such deeds is a matter of dispute,
which time will settle.[17] The existence of such deeds is a matter of
no dispute. Whether two or twenty such deeds take place in a year,
their perpetration testifies to the existence of such hatred as alone
could prompt them. There is no doubt in my mind as to the
immediate causes of such outrages. They arise out of the
licentiousness of manners. The negro is exasperated by being
deprived of his wife,—by being sent out of the way that his master
may take possession of his home. He stabs his master; or, if he
cannot fulfil his desire of vengeance, he is a dangerous person, an
object of vengeance in return, and destined to some cruel fate. If
the negro attempts to retaliate, and defile the master's home, the
faggots are set alight about him. Much that is dreadful ensues from
the negro being subject to toil and the lash: but I am confident that
the licentiousness of the masters is the proximate cause of society in
the south and south-west being in such a state that nothing else is
to be looked for than its being dissolved into its elements, if man
does not soon cease to be called the property of man. This
dissolution will never take place through the insurrection of the
negroes; but by the natural operation of vice. But the process of
demoralisation will be stopped, I have no doubt, before it reaches
that point. There is no reason to apprehend serious insurrection; for
the negroes are too degraded to act in concert, or to stand firm
before the terrible face of the white man. Like all deeply-injured
classes of persons, they are desperate and cruel, on occasion, kindly
as their nature is; but as a class, they have no courage. The voice of
a white, even of a lady, if it were authoritative, would make a whole
regiment of rebellious slaves throw down their arms and flee. Poison
is the weapon that suits them best: then the knife, in moments of
exasperation. They will never take the field, unless led on by free
blacks. Desperate as the state of society is, it will be rectified,
probably, without bloodshed.
It may be said that it is doing an injustice to cite extreme cases of
vice as indications of the state of society. I do not think so, as long
as such cases are so common as to strike the observation of a mere
passing stranger; to say nothing of their incompatibility with a
decent and orderly fulfilment of the social relations. Let us, however,
see what is the very best state of things. Let us take the words and
deeds of some of the most religious, refined, and amiable members
of society. It was this aspect of affairs which grieved me more, if
possible, than the stormier one which I have presented. The
coarsening and hardening of mind and manners among the best; the
blunting of the moral sense among the most conscientious, gave me
more pain than the stabbing, poisoning, and burning. A few
examples which will need no comment, will suffice.
Two ladies, the distinguishing ornaments of a very superior society in
the south, are truly unhappy about slavery, and opened their hearts
freely to me upon the grief which it caused them,—the perfect curse
which they found it. They need no enlightening on this, nor any
stimulus to acquit themselves as well as their unhappy
circumstances allow. They one day pressed me for a declaration of
what I should do in their situation. I replied that I would give up
everything, go away with my slaves, settle them, and stay by them
in some free place. I had said, among other things, that I dare not
stay there,—on my own account,—from moral considerations.
"What, not if you had no slaves?" "No." "Why?" "I could not trust
myself to live where I must constantly witness the exercise of
irresponsible power." They made no reply at the moment: but each
found occasion to tell me, some days afterwards, that she had been
struck to the heart by these words: the consideration I mentioned
having never occurred to her before!
Madame Lalaurie, the person who was mobbed at New Orleans, on
account of her fiendish cruelty to her slaves,—a cruelty so excessive
as to compel the belief that she was mentally deranged, though her
derangement could have taken such a direction nowhere but in a
slave country;—this person was described to me as having been
"very pleasant to whites."
A common question put to me by amiable ladies was, "Do not you
find the slaves generally very happy?" They never seemed to have
been asked, or to have asked themselves, the question with which I
replied:—"Would you be happy with their means?"
One sultry morning, I was sitting with a friend, who was giving me
all manner of information about her husband's slaves, both in the
field and house; how she fed and clothed them; what indulgences
they were allowed; what their respective capabilities were; and so
forth. While we were talking, one of the house-slaves passed us. I
observed that she appeared superior to all the rest; to which my
friend assented. "She is A.'s wife?" said I. "We call her A.'s wife, but
she has never been married to him. A. and she came to my
husband, five years ago, and asked him to let them marry: but he
could not allow it, because he had not made up his mind whether to
sell A.; and he hates parting husband and wife." "How many children
have they?" "Four." "And they are not married yet?" "No; my
husband has never been able to let them marry. He certainly will not
sell her: and he has not determined yet whether he shall sell A."
Another friend told me the following story. B. was the best slave in
her husband's possession. B. fell in love with C., a pretty girl, on a
neighbouring estate, who was purchased to be B.'s wife. C.'s temper
was jealous and violent; and she was always fancying that B.
showed attention to other girls. Her master warned her to keep her
temper, or she should be sent away. One day, when the master was
dining out, B. came to him, trembling, and related that C. had, in a
fit of jealousy, aimed a blow at his head with an axe, and nearly
struck him. The master went home, and told C. that her temper
could no longer be borne with, and she must go. He offered her the
choice of being sold to a trader, and carried to New Orleans, or of
being sent to field labour on a distant plantation. She preferred
being sold to the trader; who broke his promise of taking her to New
Orleans, and disposed of her to a neighbouring proprietor. C. kept
watch over her husband, declaring that she would be the death of
any girl whom B. might take to wife. "And so," said my informant,
"poor B. was obliged to walk about in single blessedness for some
time; till, last summer, happily, C. died."—"Is it possible," said I,
"that you pair and part these people like brutes?"—The lady looked
surprised, and asked what else could be done.
One day at dinner, when two slaves were standing behind our chairs,
the lady of the house was telling me a ludicrous story, in which a
former slave of hers was one of the personages, serving as a butt on
the question of complexion. She seemed to recollect that slaves
were listening; for she put in, "D. was an excellent boy," (the term
for male slaves of every age.) "We respected him very highly as an
excellent boy. We respected him almost as much as if he had been a
white. But, &c.——"
A southern lady, of fair reputation for refinement and cultivation, told
the following story in the hearing of a company, among whom were
some friends of mine. She spoke with obvious unconsciousness that
she was saying anything remarkable: indeed such unconsciousness
was proved by her telling the story at all. She had possessed a very
pretty mulatto girl, of whom she declared herself fond. A young man
came to stay at her house, and fell in love with the girl. "She came
to me," said the lady, "for protection; which I gave her." The young
man went away, but after some weeks, returned, saying he was so
much in love with the girl that he could not live without her. "I pitied
the young man," concluded the lady; "so I sold the girl to him for
1,500 dollars."
I repeatedly heard the preaching of a remarkably liberal man, of a
free and kindly spirit, in the south. His last sermon, extempore, was
from the text "Cast all your care upon him, for He careth for you."
The preacher told us, among other things, that God cares for all,—
for the meanest as well as the mightiest. "He cares for that coloured
person," said he, pointing to the gallery where the people of colour
sit,—"he cares for that coloured person as well as for the wisest and
best of you whites." This was the most wanton insult I had ever
seen offered to a human being; and it was with difficulty that I
refrained from walking out of the church. Yet no one present to
whom I afterwards spoke of it seemed able to comprehend the
wrong. "Well!" said they: "does not God care for the coloured
people?"
Of course, in a society where things like these are said and done by
its choicest members, there is a prevalent unconsciousness of the
existing wrong. The daily and hourly plea is of good intentions
towards the slaves; of innocence under the aspersions of foreigners.
They are as sincere in the belief that they are injured as their visitors
are cordial in their detestation of the morals of slavery. Such
unconsciousness of the milder degrees of impurity and injustice as
enables ladies and clergymen of the highest character to speak and
act as I have related, is a sufficient evidence of the prevalent
grossness of morals. One remarkable indication of such blindness
was the almost universal mention of the state of the Irish to me, as
a worse case than American slavery. I never attempted, of course, to
vindicate the state of Ireland: but I was surprised to find no one
able, till put in the way, to see the distinction between political
misgovernment and personal slavery: between exasperating a
people by political insult, and possessing them, like brutes, for
pecuniary profit. The unconsciousness of guilt is the worst of
symptoms, where there are means of light to be had. I shall have to
speak hereafter of the state of religion throughout the country. It is
enough here to say that if, with the law of liberty and the gospel of
peace and purity within their hands, the inhabitants of the south are
unconscious of the low state of the morals of society, such blindness
proves nothing so much as how far that which is highest and purest
may be confounded with what is lowest and foulest, when once the
fatal attempt has been entered upon to make them co-exist. From
their co-existence, one further step may be taken; and in the south
has been taken; the making the high and pure a sanction for the low
and foul. Of this, more hereafter.
The degradation of the women is so obvious a consequence of the
evils disclosed above, that the painful subject need not be enlarged
on. By the degradation of women, I do not mean to imply any doubt
of the purity of their manners. There are reasons, plain enough to
the observer, why their manners should be even peculiarly pure.
They are all married young, from their being out-numbered by the
other sex: and there is ever present an unfortunate servile class of
their own sex to serve the purposes of licentiousness, so as to leave
them untempted. Their degradation arises, not from their own
conduct, but from that of all other parties about them. Where the
generality of men carry secrets which their wives must be the last to
know; where the busiest and more engrossing concerns of life must
wear one aspect to the one sex, and another to the other, there is
an end to all wholesome confidence and sympathy, and woman sinks
to be the ornament of her husband's house, the domestic manager
of his establishment, instead of being his all-sufficient friend. I am
speaking not only of what I suppose must necessarily be; but of
what I have actually seen. I have seen, with heart-sorrow, the kind
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