Computer And its

Applications in Pharmacy
(Theory)
PHARM 519
Cr.Hr.03
What Is Data Processing?
Data in its raw form is not useful to any organization. Data
processing is the method of collecting raw data and translating it
into usable information. It is usually performed in a step-by-step
process by a team of data scientists' and data engineers in an
organization. The raw data is collected, filtered, sorted, processed,
analyzed, stored, and then presented in a readable format.
Data processing is essential for organizations to create better
business strategies and increase their competitive edge. By
converting the data into readable formats like graphs, charts, and
documents, employees throughout the organization can
understand and use the data.
Importance of Data Processing
• Helps in Decision-making – Organizations use processed
data for informed business decisions.
• Enhances Efficiency & Productivity – Data processing
speeds up workflows and improves accuracy.
• Ensures Data Accuracy & Reliability – Reduces errors
and inconsistencies in data.
• Supports AI & Automation – Structured data is essential
for AI-driven analysis and automation tools.
Data Processing Cycle
The data processing cycle consists of a series of steps where
raw data (input) is fed into a system to produce actionable
insights (output). Each step is taken in a specific order, but
the entire process is repeated in a cyclic manner. The first
data processing cycle's output can be stored and fed as the
input for the next cycle
Data Processing Cycle

Fig: Data processing cycle

Data Processing Cycle
Step 1: Collection
The collection of raw data is the first step of the data
processing cycle. The type of raw data collected has a
huge impact on the output produced. Hence, raw data
should be gathered from defined and accurate sources so
that the subsequent findings are valid and usable. Raw
data can include monetary figures, website cookies,
profit/loss statements of a company, user behavior, etc.
Example: Conducting Survey, Interviews etc.
Data Processing Cycle
Step 2: Preparation

Data preparation or data cleaning is the process of

sorting and filtering the raw data to remove unnecessary
and inaccurate data. Raw data is checked for errors,
duplication, miscalculations or missing data, and
transformed into a suitable form for further analysis and
processing. This is done to ensure that only the highest
quality data is fed into the processing unit.

Example: Removing duplicate entries and incorrect

values from a sales report.
Data Processing Cycle

Step 3: Input
In this step, the raw data is converted into machine
readable form and fed into the processing unit. This can be
in the form of data entry through a keyboard, scanner or
any other input source.
Example: Inputting customer survey results into a database.
Data Processing Cycle
Step 4: Data Processing

In this step, the raw data is subjected to various data

processing methods using machine learning and artificial
intelligence algorithms to generate a desirable output. This
step may vary slightly from process to process depending on
the source of data being processed (data lakes, online
databases, connected devices, etc.) and the intended use of the
output.

Example: Using a machine learning model to predict customer

buying behavior.
Data Processing Cycle
Step 5: Output
The data is finally transmitted and displayed to
the user in a readable form like graphs, tables,
vector files, audio, video, documents, etc. This
output can be stored and further processed in the
next data processing cycle.
Example: Generating a sales performance
dashboard for business managers.
Data Processing Cycle
Step 6: Storage
The last step of the data processing cycle is storage,
where data and metadata are stored for further use.
This allows for quick access and retrieval of
information whenever needed, and also allows it to
be used as input in the next data processing cycle
directly.
Example: Saving financial transaction records in a cloud database.
Applications of Data Processing
Banking – Transaction records, fraud detection, and risk
management.

Healthcare – Patient records, diagnostics, and treatment

recommendations.

Education – Student performance tracking and digital learning

analytics.

E-commerce – Customer behavior analysis and personalized

recommendations.

Government – Census data management and national security

monitoring.
AI & ML in Data Processing
•Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI refers to the
simulation of human intelligence in machines that
can perform tasks like learning, reasoning, and
problem-solving.
•Machine Learning (ML): A subset of AI that
enables systems to learn from data and improve
performance over time without explicit
programming.
•Deep Learning (DL): A specialized branch of ML
using neural networks to process large datasets and
make predictions.
AI & ML in Data Processing
AI & ML in Data Processing

Supervised Learning
Definition: Supervised learning is a type of ML where models learn from
labeled training data.
•Examples:
• Spam Detection: Email filters classify emails as spam or not
spam.
• Medical Diagnosis: AI predicts diseases based on symptoms
and medical records.
• Fraud Detection: Banks use supervised learning to detect
fraudulent transactions.
• Stock Market Prediction: AI predicts stock prices based on
historical data.
Supervised Learning Models
Regression Model
Definition: Regression models predict continuous numerical
values based on input variables.
•How It Works: Uses historical data to learn relationships
between variables and make predictions.
•Example Applications:
• House Price Prediction: Predicting property prices
based on factors like location, size, and amenities.
Supervised Learning Models

Classification is a Supervised
Learning technique where the
model learns to categorize data
into predefined classes or labels.
It predicts discrete values by
analyzing input data and
assigning it to a specific
category.
Supervised Learning Models
Decision Trees & Random Forest (Supervised Learning)
•Definition: Decision trees classify data by learning decision rules from
input features. Random forest combines multiple decision trees for better
accuracy.
•How It Works: Splits data into nodes based on the most significant
features and predicts outcomes.
•Example Applications
• Spam or Not Spam (Email Classification)
• Malignant or Benign Tumor (Medical Diagnosis)
Unsupervised Learning
Unsupervised Learning is a type of Machine Learning where the
model is trained on unlabeled data, meaning there are no
predefined categories or correct answers. Instead, the model finds
hidden patterns, structures, or relationships in the data without
human supervision.
Difference Between Supervised and
Unsupervised Learning

Unsupervised
Feature Supervised Learning
Learning
Labeled Data labeled dataset unlabeled dataset
Predict output based Find hidden patterns
Goal
on past data & structures
Customer
Spam detection,
Examples segmentation, fraud
disease prediction
detection
Classification,
Techniques Used Clustering, Association
Regression
 Unsupervised Learning
•Clustering models group similar
data points without predefined
labels.
•How It Works: Uses distance-
based algorithms to cluster related
data points.
•Example Applications:
• Customer Segmentation:
Grouping customers based on
purchasing behavior.
• Market Basket Analysis:
Finding relationships
between frequently bought
items.
Neural Networks & Deep Learning
•Definition: Neural networks mimic the human brain to recognize
patterns in large datasets.
•How It Works: Consists of interconnected layers of artificial
neurons that process and learn from data.
•Example Applications:
• Image & Speech Recognition: Face recognition, voice
assistants like Siri & Alexa.
• Fraud Detection: Identifying suspicious activities in
transactions.
• Autonomous Vehicles: AI-powered self-driving car
navigation.
Reinforcement Learning
•Definition: AI models learn by interacting with an
environment and receiving rewards or penalties.
•How It Works: Uses trial-and-error to optimize decision-
making strategies.
•Example Applications:
• Self-Driving Cars: Learning safe navigation strategies.
• AI in Gaming: Teaching AI to play and master games like
Chess & Go.
• Robotics: Teaching robots how to move, grasp objects, and
perform tasks.
Methods of Data Collection
Manual Data Collection
•Manual data collection involves gathering information
using traditional, non-digital methods such as paper-
based surveys, interviews, written records, and direct
observation.
Advantages
•Lower Initial Cost – Manual methods do not require
expensive technology, making them more accessible,
especially in resource-limited environments.
•No Technical Expertise Required – Unlike digital
systems, manual data collection does not necessitate
specialized training or knowledge of software.
Manual Data Collection

•Flexibility in Data Collection – Researchers can

modify or adapt questions and methods based on the
situation without technical constraints.
•Independence from Technology – Data collection can
occur without reliance on electricity, internet connectivity,
or digital devices, making it useful in remote areas.
Manual Collection of data
Disadvantages
•Time-Consuming Process – Collecting, recording, and
analyzing data manually requires significant effort and
time.
•Prone to Human Error – Handwritten or verbally
recorded data is susceptible to inaccuracies,
misinterpretation, and data loss.
•Challenges in Storage and Organization – Physical
records require space and can deteriorate over time,
making long-term storage and retrieval difficult.
Methods of Data Collection
Digital Data Collection
Digital data collection utilizes electronic devices such as computers,
tablets, smartphones, and automated systems to gather, store, and
analyze data. It includes online surveys, digital forms, mobile
applications, sensors, and data management software.
Advantages
•Efficiency and Speed – Data can be collected, processed, and
analyzed in real time, significantly reducing the time required for
reporting and decision-making.
•Higher Accuracy and Reliability – Automated data validation
reduces human errors and enhances the credibility of collected
information.
Digital Data Collection
Advantages
•Improved Data Storage and Access – Digital data can be securely
stored, easily accessed, and retrieved when needed, reducing the risk of
data loss.
•Integration with Other Systems – Digital data collection allows
seamless integration with analytical tools, databases, and cloud storage
for advanced insights.
Disadvantages
•Higher Initial Costs – Implementing digital data collection requires
investment in devices, software, and training, which may not be
feasible for all organizations.
•Technical Challenges and Learning Curve – Users must be
trained to operate digital tools, and technical issues such as software
bugs or system failures can disrupt the process.
Methods of Data Input and Devices
Data input refers to the ways information is entered into a computer or
system for processing.
The main methods include:
1. Manual Data Entry
Involves human interaction to input data directly.
Typing text, entering numbers, clicking options.
•Filling out forms, writing documents, entering login credentials.
2. Scanning & Imaging
Converts physical data (printed text, barcodes, QR codes) into digital
form.
• Optical Character Recognition (OCR): Scans printed
documents and converts them into editable text.
• Barcode & QR Code Scanners: Read codes to retrieve
information instantly.
• Digital Cameras & Image Scanners: Capture photos or scan
physical documents.
Methods of Data Input
3. Sensor-Based Input
•Uses sensors to detect physical changes and convert them into data.
• Motion Sensors: Detect movement in security systems.
• Biometric Sensors: Capture fingerprints, retina scans, or facial
recognition for authentication.
4. Voice & Audio Input
•Uses voice recognition software to convert spoken words into text or
commands.
• Microphones: Record sound for voice commands, dictation, or
calls.
• Voice Assistants (e.g., Siri, Alexa, Google Assistant):
Respond to spoken instructions.
Methods of Data Input
5. Automated Data Capture
•Uses technology to collect data without manual input.
• RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) Readers: Track
items in warehouses and stores.
• NFC (Near Field Communication) Devices: Enable
contactless payments and access control.
• Magnetic Stripe Readers: Read credit/debit card information.
6. Remote & Wireless Input
•Collects data from remote locations through wireless technologies.
• GPS (Global Positioning System): Tracks location for
navigation and mapping.
• IoT (Internet of Things) Devices: Smart home devices, fitness
trackers, and industrial monitoring sensors.
• Wireless Sensors: Used in healthcare, smart cities, and
agriculture for real-time data collection
Data Validation and Verification
Data accuracy and reliability are crucial in any information
system. To ensure data integrity, two important processes
are used: data validation and data verification.
1. Data Validation
Definition:
Data validation is the process of checking data for
correctness, completeness, and reasonableness before it is
processed or stored in a system. It ensures that only valid
and meaningful data is accepted.
Types of Data Validation:
1.Format Check:
1. Ensures data follows a specific format.
Example: A date must be in the format "DD/MM/YYYY"
(e.g., 14/03/2025).
Data Validation and Verification
2. Range Check:
1. Ensures numeric values fall within an acceptable range.
Example: A student's age in a school system should be between 5 and
18 years.
3.Presence Check:
1. Ensures that required fields are not left empty.
Example: A registration form should not allow submission without
entering an email.
4.Type Check:
1. Ensures the data type is correct (e.g., numeric, text, date).
Example: A phone number field should only accept digits, not letters.
5.Consistency Check:
1. Ensures data in different fields match logically
Example: A start date should not be after an end date in a booking
system.
Data Validation and Verification
6. Uniqueness Check:
6. Ensures data does not duplicate existing records when
uniqueness is required.
Example: No two users should have the same username
or employee ID.
Data Validation and Verification
Data Verification
Definition:
Data verification is the process of ensuring that the entered data matches
the original source and is free from errors. Unlike validation, which checks
if data is reasonable, verification ensures data accuracy and correctness.
Methods of Data Verification:
1.Double Entry Verification:
1. Data is entered twice, and both copies are compared.
Example: When setting a password, the user is asked to enter it twice.
2.Proofreading Verification:
1. A human manually reviews the entered data against the original
source.
Example: A supervisor checks a printed report against the original data
entry.
Data Validation and Verification
3. Checksums & Hashing:
1. Mathematical algorithms generate a checksum or hash to verify data
integrity.
Example: File downloads use checksums (MD5, SHA-256) to ensure the
file is not corrupted.
4.Parity Checks:
1. Used in data transmission to detect errors in binary data.
Example: A parity bit is added to data packets in networking to detect
transmission errors.
5.Audit Trails:
1. A system logs all changes to data for review.
Example: Banking systems record transaction logs to track
modifications.
Output and Recording of Data

Once data is processed, it needs to be presented in a meaningful way

(output) and stored for future use (recording). Both these processes are
essential for effective data management.
 Output of Data
Definition:
Output refers to the presentation of processed data in a readable or usable
form for users. The format of the output depends on the system, the
purpose of the data, and how it will be used.
Types of Output Devices:
1.Visual Output (Displayed on Screens & Monitors)
1.Monitors (LCD, LED) → Used for displaying text, images, videos,
and interactive elements.
2.Projectors → Display visual output on a larger screen for
presentations and conferences.
3.Digital Billboards → Show advertisements and information in
public spaces.
 Output of Data
Types of Output Devices:
2. Printed Output (Hard Copy)
1. Printers (Inkjet, Laser, 3D Printers) → Convert digital data into
physical copies.
2. Plotters → Used for producing high-quality technical drawings and
large-scale maps.
3. Audio Output
•Speakers & Headphones → Convert digital signals into sound. Used in
music, alarms, voice output, etc.
•Text-to-Speech (TTS) Systems → Convert written text into spoken
words for accessibility and automation.
Output of Data
4. Tactile Output
Haptic Feedback Devices → Provide vibrations or force feedback in
gaming and simulations.
5. Multimedia & Immersive Output (AR & VR)
•Augmented Reality (AR): Enhances the real world by overlaying
digital elements onto physical surroundings.
•Examples: Pokémon GO (gaming), IKEA Place (furniture
visualization), AR-assisted surgery.
•Virtual Reality (VR): Creates a fully immersive 3D virtual
environment, replacing the real world.
•Examples: VR gaming (Oculus Quest, PlayStation VR), flight
simulators, virtual real estate tours.
 Recording of Data
Definition:
Recording of data refers to the storage of information in a way that
allows future retrieval and analysis. This can be done using digital or
physical methods.
Types of Data Recording Methods:
1.Magnetic Storage (Traditional & Hard Disk Storage)
1.Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) → Used in computers and servers for
long-term data storage.
2.Magnetic Tapes → Used for archival storage in data centers and
large organizations.
2.Optical Storage (CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs)
1. Used for storing multimedia, backup data, and software
installations.
 Recording of Data
3. Solid-State Storage (Fast & Portable Media)
1.Solid-State Drives (SSDs) → Faster than HDDs, used in modern
laptops and high-performance servers.
2.USB Flash Drives & Memory Cards → Portable storage for
files, photos, and videos.

4. Cloud Storage (Remote & Online Storage Services)

4. Google Drive, Dropbox, OneDrive, AWS → Store data on
internet-based servers for remote access.
5. Cloud Backups → Used by businesses to protect data from loss
or corruption.
 Recording of Data

4.Database Storage (Structured & Organized Storage Systems)

1.SQL Databases (MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle) → Used for
storing structured data in tables.
5.Paper-Based Recording (Physical Documentation)
1.Registers, Books, Printed Reports → Used in traditional office
environments for record-keeping.
2.Forms & Invoices → Maintain official transaction records in
businesses.