APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR.

ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

UNIT 1: THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

A single-phase ac power system consists of a generator connected through a pair of
wires (a transmission line) to a load. Figure (a) depicts a single phase two-wire system, where
𝑉𝑃 is the magnitude of the source voltage and φ is the phase.
Figure (b) depict is a single-phase three-wire system which is common in practice. It contains
two identical sources (equal magnitude and the same phase) which are connected to two loads
by two outer wires and the neutral. Consider a normal household system with a single-phase
three-wire system, because the terminal voltages have the same magnitude and the same phase.
Such a system allows the connection of both 120-V and 240-V appliances.

Single-phase systems: (a) two-wire type, (b) three-wire type.

Polyphase Circuits or systems in which the ac sources operate at the same frequency but
different phases are known as polyphase
Figure (c) shows a two-phase three-wire system, and Fig. (d) shows a three-phase four wire
system

(c) Two-phase three-wire system (d) Three-phase four-wire system.

A two-phase system is produced by a generator consisting of two coils placed perpendicular to
each other so that the voltage generated by one lags the other by 90◦. While a three-phase
system is produced by a generator consisting of three sources having the same amplitude and
frequency but out of phase with each other by 120◦.
Why three-phase System?
1. Nearly all electric power is generated and distributed in three-phase, at the operating
frequency of 60 Hz (or ω = 377 rad/s) in the United States or 50 Hz (or ω = 314 rad/s) in
some other parts of the world.
2. When one phase or two-phase inputs or more are required, they are taken from the three-
phase system rather than generated independently. Even when more than three phases are
needed—such as in the aluminium industry, where 48 phases are required for melting
purposes—they can be provided by manipulating the three phases supplied.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

3. The instantaneous power in a three-phase system can be constant (not pulsating), which
results in uniform power transmission and less vibration of three-phase machines.
4. The three-phase system is more economical than the single-phase for the same amount of
power. The amount of wire required for a three-phase system is less than that required for
an equivalent single-phase system.

BALANCED THREE-PHASE VOLTAGES

• Three-phase voltages are often produced with a three-phase ac generator (or alternator)
shown in Fig (a).
• The generator basically consists of a rotating magnet (called the rotor) surrounded by a
stationary winding (called the stator).
• Three separate windings or coils with terminal s a-a’, b-b’, and c-c’ are physically placed
120𝑜 apart around the stator.
• Terminals a and a’ for example, stand for one of the ends of coils going into and the other
end coming out of the page.
• As the rotor rotates, its magnetic field “cuts” the flux from the three coils and induces
voltages in the coils. Because the coils are placed 120𝑜 apart, the induced voltages in the
coils are equal in magnitude but out of phase by 120𝑜 as shown in Fig (b)
• Since each coil can be regarded as a single-phase generator by itself, the three-phase
generator can supply power to both single-phase and three-phase loads

(a) A three-phase generator (b) A three-phase generator

Wye and Delta Connected Voltage Source

• A typical three-phase system consists of three voltage sources connected to loads by three
or four wires (or transmission lines).
• (Three phase current sources are very scarce.) A three-phase system is equivalent to three
single-phase circuits.
• The voltage sources can be either wye-connected as shown in Fig. (a) or delta-connected as
in Fig.(b).

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

(a) Y-connected source, (b) ∆-connected source

Let us consider the wye-connected voltages in Fig. (a) for now. The voltages 𝑽𝒂𝒏 , 𝑽𝒃𝒏 and 𝑽𝒄𝒏
are respectively between lines a, b, and c, and the neutral line n. These voltages are called
phase voltages.
If then voltage sources have the same amplitude and frequency ω and are out of phase with
each other by 120𝑜 , the voltages are said to be balanced. This implies that
𝑽𝒂𝒏 + 𝑽𝒃𝒏 + 𝑽𝒄𝒏 = 𝟎 (𝟏)
|𝑽𝒂𝒏 |= |𝑽𝒃𝒏 | = |𝑽𝒄𝒏 | (𝟐)
Therefore,
Balanced phase voltages are equal in magnitude and are out of phase with each other by
120𝑜 .

Phase Sequence
The phase sequence is the time order in which the voltages pass through their respective
maximum values. The phase sequence is determined by the order in which the phasors pass through
a fixed point in the phase diagram.

There are two possible phase sequences when three-phase voltages are 120𝑜 out of phase with
each other:
Positive Phase Sequence Negative Phase Sequence

(a) abc sequence (b) acb sequence

The positive sequence is known as the abc sequence, which can be mathematically
expressed as:
𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0𝑜 , 𝑉𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 120𝑜 , 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠−240𝑜 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ + 120𝑜 . (3)
𝑉𝑝 is the effective or rms value. In this phase sequence, 𝑉𝑎𝑛 leads 𝑉𝑏𝑛 , which in turn leads 𝑉𝑐𝑛 .
This sequence is produced when the rotor in rotates counter clockwise.
While the Negative sequence is known as the acb sequence, which can be mathematically
expressed as:
𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0𝑜 , 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 120𝑜 , 𝑉𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠−240𝑜 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ + 120𝑜 . (4)

For this phase sequence, 𝑉𝑎𝑛 leads 𝑉𝑐𝑛 , which in turn leads 𝑉𝑏𝑛 . The acb sequence is produced
when the rotor rotates in the clockwise direction.
Thus, it can be shown that the voltages in equation (3) and (4) satisfy equation (1) and (2).
𝑽𝒂𝒏 + 𝑽𝒃𝒏 + 𝑽𝒄𝒏 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0𝑜 + 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 120𝑜 + 𝑉𝑝 ∠ + 120𝑜
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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

= 𝑉𝑝 (1 − 0.5 − 𝑗0.866 − 0.5 + 𝑗0.866) = 0 (5)

The phase sequence is important in three-phase power distribution. It determines the direction
of the rotation of a load i.e., motor connected to the power source.

Balanced Load
• A balanced load is one in which the phase impedances are equal in magnitude and in phase.
• Like the generator connections, a three-phase load can be either wye-connected or delta-
connected, depending on the end application.

(a) a Y-connected load, (b) ∆-connected load

• Figure (a) shows a wye-connected load, and Fig. (b) shows a delta-connected load. The
neutral line in Fig. (a) may or may not be there, depending on whether the system is four-
or three-wire.
• A neutral connection is topologically impossible for a delta connection. A wye- or delta-
connected load is said to be unbalanced if the phase impedances are not equal in magnitude
or phase.
• Thus, a Y-connected load consists of three impedances connected to a neutral node, while a
∆-connected load consists of three impedances connected around a loop. The load is
balanced when the three impedances are equal in either case.

For a balanced wye-connected load,

𝑍1 = 𝑍2 = 𝑍3 = 𝑍𝑌 (6) where 𝑍𝑌 is the load impedance per phase.

For a balanced delta-connected load

𝑍𝑎 = 𝑍𝑏 = 𝑍𝑐 = 𝑍∆ (7) where 𝑍∆ is the load impedance per phase
Recall:
1
𝑍∆ = 3𝑍𝑌 OR 𝑍𝑌 = 𝑍∆ (8) since Y-connected load can be transformed into ∆-
3
connected load
Connection of Balanced Load and Source
Since both the three-phase source and the three-phase load can be either wye- or delta-
connected, the four possible connections include:
• Y-Y connection (i.e., Y-connected source with a Y-connected load).
• Y- ∆ connection
• ∆ − ∆ connection
• ∆ − 𝑌 connection

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

➢ It is appropriate to mention here that a balanced ∆ -connected load is more common than a
balanced wye-connected load. This is due to the ease with which loads may be added or
removed from each phase of a delta-connected load. This is very difficult with a wye-
connected load because the neutral may not be accessible.
➢ On the other hand, ∆-connected sources are not common in practice because of the
circulating current that will result in the delta-mesh if the three-phase voltages are slightly
unbalanced.

BALANCED WYE-WYE (Y-Y) CONNECTION

Any balanced three-phase system can be reduced to an equivalent Y-Y system. Therefore,
analysis of this system should be regarded as the key to solving all balanced three-phase
systems.
A balanced Y-Y system is a three-phase system with a balanced Y-connected source and a
balanced Y-connected load.
• Consider the balanced four-wire Y-Y system of Fig. (a), where a Y-connected load is
connected to a Y-connected source. Balanced load is assumed so that load impedances are
equal.

(a) (b) Balanced Y-Y connection

(a) A balanced Y-Y system, showing the source, line, and load impedances

• The impedance 𝑍𝑌 is the total load impedance per phase, it may also be regarded as the sum
of the source impedance 𝑍𝑆 , line impedance 𝑍ℓ , and load impedance 𝑍𝐿 for each phase,
since these impedances are in series.
• As illustrated in Fig.(a), 𝑍𝑆 denotes the internal impedance of the phase winding of the
generator; 𝑍ℓ is the impedance of the line joining a phase of the source with a phase of the
load; 𝑍𝐿 is the impedance of each phase of the load; and 𝑍𝑛 is the impedance of the neutral
line.
Thus; 𝒁𝒀 = 𝒁𝑺 + 𝒁𝓵 + 𝒁𝑳 (𝟗)
• 𝑍ℓ and 𝑍𝐿 are often very small compared with 𝑍𝐿 It is assumed that 𝑍𝑌 = 𝑍𝐿 if no source or
line impedance is given.
• In any event, by lumping the impedances together, the Y-Y system in Fig. (a) can be
simplified to that shown in Fig. (b).

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

Assuming the positive sequence, the phase voltages (or line-to-neutral voltages) are:
𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0𝑜 ,
𝑉𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 120𝑜 (10)
𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ + 120𝑜

The line-to-line voltages or simply line voltages 𝑉𝑎𝑏 , 𝑉𝑏𝑐 , and 𝑉𝑐𝑎 are related to the phase
voltages. For example,
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 + 𝑉𝑛𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0𝑜 − 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 120𝑜
1 √3
= 𝑉𝑃 (1 + + 𝑗 ) = √3𝑉𝑃 ∠30𝑜 (11a)
2 2

Similarly, we can obtain

𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏𝑛 − 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = √3𝑉𝑃 ∠−90𝑜 (11b)
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐𝑛 − 𝑉𝑎𝑛 = √3𝑉𝑃 ∠−210𝑜 (11c)
Thus, the magnitude of the line voltages 𝒁𝑳 is √𝟑 times the magnitude of the phase voltages
𝑽𝑷 , or
𝒁𝑳 = √𝟑𝑽𝑷 (12)
𝑉𝑃 = |𝑽𝒂𝒏 |= |𝑽𝒃𝒏 | = |𝑉𝑐𝑛 | (13)
𝑉𝐿 = |𝑽𝒂𝒃 |= |𝑽𝒃𝒄 | = |𝐕𝐜𝐚 | (14)
• Also, the line voltages lead their corresponding phase voltages by 30𝑜 as shown in Fig (c). Figure
(c) also shows how to determine 𝑉𝑎𝑏 from the phase voltages, while Fig. (d) shows the same for the
three-line voltages.
• Note that 𝑉𝑎𝑏 leads 𝑉𝑏𝑐 by 120𝑜 , and 𝑉𝑏𝑐 lead 𝑉𝑐𝑎 by 120𝑜 so that the line voltages sum up
to zero as do the phase voltages.

(e) (e)
Figure: Phasor diagrams illustrating the relationship between line voltages and phase voltages.

Applying KVL to each phase in Fig. (d), we obtain the line currents as
𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑏𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑛 ∠−120𝑜
𝐼𝑎 = , 𝐼𝑏 = = = 𝐼𝑎 ∠ − 120𝑜 (15)
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌

𝑉𝑐𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑛 ∠ − 240𝑜

𝐼𝑐 = = = 𝐼𝑎 ∠ − 240𝑜
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌
We can readily infer that the line currents add up to zero,

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 = 0 (16)
So that, 𝐼𝑛 = −(𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 ) = 0 (17a)
Or 𝑉𝑛𝑁 = 𝑍𝑛 𝐼𝑛 = 0 (17b)
• This mean, the voltage across the neutral wire is zero. The neutral line can thus be removed
without affecting the system.
• In a long-distance power transmission, conductors in multiples of three are used with the
earth itself acting as the neutral conductor. Power systems designed in this way are well
grounded at all critical points to ensure safety.

• While the line current is the current in each line, the phase current is the current in each
phase of the source or load.
• In the Y-Y system, the line current is the same as the phase current

❖ An alternative way of analysing a balanced Y-Y system is to do so on a “per phase”

basis. We look at one phase, say phase a, and analyse the single-phase equivalent circuit
in Fig.(e). The single-phase analysis yields the line current 𝐼𝑎 as:

(e)
𝑉𝑎𝑛
𝐼𝑎 = (18)
𝑍𝑌
• From 𝐼𝑎 , we use the phase sequence to obtain other line currents. Thus, as long as the
system is balanced, we need to only analyse one phase. This can also be done even if the
neutral line is absent, as in the three-wire system.
BALANCED WYE-DELTA CONNECTION
A balanced Y-Δ system consists of a balanced Y-connected source feeding a balanced
connected load.

(a)
𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0𝑜 ,

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

𝑉𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 120𝑜 (10)

𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ + 120𝑜
The line voltages are
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = √3𝑉𝑃 ∠30𝑜 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 (20)

𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏𝑛 − 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = √3𝑉𝑃 ∠−90𝑜 = 𝑉𝐵𝐶 (21)

𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐𝑛 − 𝑉𝑎𝑛 = √3𝑉𝑃 ∠−210𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶𝐴 (22)

• showing that the line voltages are equal to the voltages across the load impedances for this
system configuration. From these voltages, we can obtain the phase currents as:
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐵𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐴
𝐼𝐴𝐵 = , 𝐼𝐵𝐶 = , 𝐼𝐶𝐴 = (23)
𝑍∆ 𝑍∆ 𝑍∆
❖ Alternative way to get these phase currents is to apply KVL. For example, applying KVL
around loop aABbna gives:
−𝑉𝑎𝑛 + 𝑍∆ 𝐼𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝑉𝑎𝑛 −𝑉𝑏𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝐴𝐵
Or 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = = = same as eqn. (23)
𝑍∆ 𝑍∆ 𝑍∆
❖ This is the more general way of finding the phase currents

• The line currents are obtained from the phase currents by applying KCL at nodes A, B, and
C. Thus, 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 −𝐼𝐶𝐴 , 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝐵𝐶 −𝐼𝐴𝐵 , 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝐶𝐴 −𝐼𝐵𝐶 (24)
Since 𝐼𝐶𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 ∠−240𝑜
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 −𝐼𝐶𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 (1 − 1∠−240𝑜 )
= 𝐼𝐴𝐵 (1 + 0.5 − 𝑗0.866) = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 √3∠−30𝑜 (25)
• showing that the magnitude 𝐼𝐿 of the line current is √3 times the magnitude 𝐼𝑃 of the phase
current, or
𝐼𝐿 = √3 𝐼𝑃 (26)
where 𝐼𝐿 = |𝑰𝒂 |= |𝑰𝒃 | = |𝐈𝐜 | (27)
𝐼𝑃 = |𝑰𝑨𝑩 |= |𝑰𝑩𝑪 | = |𝐈𝐂𝐀 | (28)
Also, the line currents lag the corresponding phase currents by 30𝑜 , assuming the positive
sequence. Figure (b) is a phasor diagram illustrating the relationship between the phase and
line currents.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

(b)
(b) Phasor diagram illustrating the relationship between phase and line currents.
An alternative way of analysing the Y-∆ circuit is to transform the ∆-connected load to an
equivalent Y-connected load. Using the ∆-Y transformation formula:
𝑍∆
𝑍𝑌 = (29)
3
The three-phase Y-∆ system in Fig. (a) can be replaced by the single-phase equivalent circuit
in Fig. (c).

(c)

BALANCED DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION

A balanced Δ-Δ system is one in which both the balanced source and balanced load are Δ -
connected.
• The source as well as the load may be delta-connected as shown in Fig. (a). Assuming a
positive sequence, the phase voltages for a delta-connected source are:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0𝑜 ,
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 120𝑜 (10)
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ + 120𝑜

(a)
• The line voltages are the same as the phase voltages. From Fig. 12.17, assuming there is no
line impedances, the phase voltages of the delta connected source are equal to the voltages
across the impedances; that is,
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 , 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝐵𝐶 , 𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝐶𝐴
Hence, the phase currents are
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝐵𝐶 𝑉𝑏𝑐 𝑉𝐶𝐴 𝑉𝑐𝑎
𝐼𝐴𝐵 = = , 𝐼𝐵𝐶 = = , 𝐼𝐶𝐴 = =
𝑍∆ 𝑍∆ 𝑍∆ 𝑍∆ 𝑍∆ 𝑍∆

• Since the load is delta-connected just as in the previous section, some of the formulas
derived there apply here. The line currents are obtained from the phase currents by applying
KCL at nodes A, B, and C.
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 −𝐼𝐶𝐴 , 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝐵𝐶 −𝐼𝐴𝐵 , 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝐶𝐴 −𝐼𝐵𝐶
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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

Also, as shown in the last section, each line current lags the corresponding phase current by
30𝑜 ; the magnitude 𝐼𝐿 of the line current is √3 times the magnitude 𝐼𝑃 of the phase current,
𝐼𝐿 = √3 𝐼𝑃
An alternative way of analysing the ∆ − ∆ circuit is to convert both the source and the load to
𝑍
their Y equivalents since 𝑍𝑌 = 3∆

BALANCED DELTA-WYE CONNECTION

A balanced Δ-Y system consists of a balanced ∆-connected source feeding a balanced Y-
connected load.
Consider the ∆-Y circuit in Fig. (a). Again, assuming the abc sequence, the phase voltages of
a delta-connected source are:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0𝑜 ,
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ − 120𝑜 (10)
𝑜
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠ + 120 These are also the line voltages as well as the phase voltages

(a)
The line currents can be obtained in many ways. One way is to apply KVL to loop aANBba in
Fig. (a) writing
−𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑍𝑌 𝐼𝑎 − 𝑍𝑌 𝐼𝑏 = 0
𝑍𝑌 (𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑏 ) = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠0𝑜
𝑉𝑝 ∠0𝑜
Thus, 𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑏 = (35)
𝑍𝑌
But 𝐼𝑏 lags 𝐼𝑎 by 120𝑜 , since we assumed the abc sequence, that is:
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑎 ∠−120𝑜
𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑎 (1 − 1∠−120𝑜 )
1 √3
= 𝐼𝑎 (1 + + 𝑗 ) = 𝐼𝑎 √3 ∠30𝑜 (36)
2 2
Substituting Eq. (36) into Eq. (35) gives
𝑉𝑃 ⁄√3∠ − 30𝑜
𝐼𝑎 = (37)
𝑍𝑌
From this, we obtain the other line currents 𝐼𝑏 and 𝐼𝑐 using the positive phase sequence, i.e.,

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑎 ∠−120𝑜 , 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑎 ∠+120𝑜 . The phase currents are equal to the line currents.
• Another way to obtain the line currents is to replace the delta connected source with its
equivalent wye-connected source, as shown in Fig (b)

• It was found that the line-to-line voltages of a wye-connected source lead their
corresponding phase voltages by 30◦. Therefore, we obtain each phase voltage of the
equivalent wye-connected source by dividing the corresponding line voltage of the delta-
connected source by √3 and shifting its phase by −30◦. Thus, the equivalent wye connected
source has the phase voltages.

(b) Transforming a ∆-connected source to an equivalent Y-connected source.]

𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑛
𝑉𝑎𝑛 = ∠ − 30𝑜 𝑉𝑏𝑛 = ∠ − 150𝑜 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = ∠ + 90𝑜
√3 √3 √3

• If the delta-connected source has source impedance 𝑍𝑆 per phase, the equivalent wye-
connected source will have a source impedance of 𝑍𝑆 /3
• Once the source is transformed to wye, the circuit becomes a Y-Y system. Therefore, we
can use the equivalent single-phase circuit shown in Fig. (c), from which the line current for
phase a is:
𝑉𝑃 ⁄√3∠ − 30𝑜
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑍𝑌
• Alternatively, we may transform the wye-connected load to an equivalent delta-connected
load. This results in a delta-delta system, which can be analysed
𝑉𝑃
𝑉𝐴𝑁 = 𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝑌 = ∠ − 30𝑜
√3
𝑉𝐵𝑁 = 𝑉𝐴𝑁 ∠ − 120𝑜 , 𝑉𝐶𝑁 = 𝑉𝐴𝑁 ∠ + 120𝑜

NOTE
The delta-connected load is more desirable than the wye-connected load. It is easier to alter the loads
in any one phase of the delta-connected loads, as the individual loads are connected directly across the
lines. However, the delta-connected source is hardly used in practice, because any slight imbalance in
the phase voltages will result in unwanted circulating currents.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

UNIT2: MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

When two loops with or without contacts between them affect each other through the magnetic
field generated by one of them, they are said to be magnetically coupled.
Transformer
Transformer is an electrical device designed on the basis of the concept of magnetic coupling.
It uses magnetically coupled coils to transfer energy from one circuit to another.
Transformers are key circuit elements. They are used in power systems for stepping up or
stepping down ac voltages or currents
They are used in electronic circuits such as radio and television receivers for impedance
matching, isolating one part of a circuit from another, and again for stepping up or down ac
voltages and currents.

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
When two inductors (or coils) are in a close proximity to each other, the magnetic flux caused
by current in one coil links with the other coil, thereby inducing voltage in the latter. This
phenomenon is known as mutual inductance.
Consider a single inductor, a coil with N turns. When current i flows through the coil, a
magnetic flux φ is produced around it as shown in Fig.(a).

Fig (a) Magnetic flux produced by a single coil with N turns.

According to Faraday’s law, the voltage v induced in the coil is proportional to the number of
turns N and the time rate of change of the magnetic flux φ; that is
𝑑∅
𝑣=𝑁 (1)
𝑑𝑡
But the flux φ is produced by current i so that any change in φ is caused by a change in the current. Hence, Eq.
(1) can be written as
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝑁 (2)
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿 (3)
𝑑𝑡
Eqn. (3) is the voltage-current relationship for the inductor.
From Eqs. (2) and (3), the inductance L of the inductor is thus given by:
𝑑∅
𝐿=𝑁 (4)
𝑑𝑖
This inductance is commonly called self-inductance, because it relates the voltage induced in
a coil by a time-varying current in the same coil.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

Fig (b)
Consider two coils with self-inductances 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 that are in close proximity with each other
(Fig. 2). Coil 1 has 𝑁1 turns, while coil 2 has 𝑁2 turns
For the sake of simplicity, assume that the second inductor carries no current. The magnetic
flux ∅1 emanating from coil 1 has two components: one component ∅11 e links only coil 1, and
another component ∅12 links both coils. Hence,
∅1 = ∅11 + ∅12 (5)
Although the two coils are physically separated, they are said to be magnetically coupled.
Since the entire flux ∅1 links coil 1, the voltage induced in coil 1 is
𝑑∅1
𝑣1 = 𝑁1 (6)
𝑑𝑡
Only flux ∅12 links coil 2, so the voltage induced in coil 2 is
𝑑∅12
𝑣2 = 𝑁2 (7)
𝑑𝑡
Again, as the fluxes are caused by the current 𝑖1 flowing in coil 1 Eq. (6) can be written as
𝑑∅1 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖1
𝑣1 = 𝑁1 = 𝐿1
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅1
𝐿1 = 𝑁1
𝑑𝑖1
Is the self-inductance of coil 1. Similarly, Eq. (7) can be rewritten as:
𝑑∅12 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖1
𝑣1 = 𝑁2 = 𝑀21 (10)
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅12
𝑀21 = 𝑁2
𝑑𝑖1
Where 𝑀21 is known as the mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1.
Subscript 21 indicates that the inductance 𝑀21 relates the voltage induced in coil 2 to the current
in coil 1. Thus, the open-circuit mutual voltage (or induced voltage) across coil 2 is
𝑑𝑖1
𝑣2 = 𝑀21 (11)
𝑑𝑡
Suppose we now let current 𝑖2 flow in coil 2, while coil 1 carries no current (Fig.c). The
magnetic flux ∅2 emanating from coil 2 comprises flux ∅22 that links only coil 2 and flux ∅21
that links both coils. Hence,

(c)

∅2 = ∅21 + ∅22

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

The entire flux ∅2 links coil 2, so the voltage induced in coil 2 is

𝑑∅2 𝑑∅2 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖2
𝑣2 = 𝑁2 = 𝑁2 = 𝐿2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅2
Where 𝐿2 = 𝑁2 is the self-inductance of coil 2. Since only flux ∅21 links coil 1, the
𝑑𝑖2
voltage induced in coil 1 is
𝑑∅21 𝑑∅21 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖2
𝑣1 = 𝑁1 = 𝑁1 = 𝑀12
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅21
𝑀12 = 𝑁1 the mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2. Thus, the open-circuit
𝑑𝑖2
mutual voltage across coil 1 is:
𝑑𝑖2
𝑣1 = 𝑀12
𝑑𝑡
NOTE
1. 𝑴𝟏𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐𝟏 = 𝑴 is the mutual inductance between the two coils.
2. Like self-inductance L, mutual inductance M is measured in henrys (H).
3. Mutual coupling only exists when the inductors or coils are in close proximity, and the
circuits are driven by time-varying sources.
4. Mutual inductance results if a voltage is induced by a time-varying current in another circuit.
It is the property of an inductor to produce a voltage in reaction to a time-varying current in
another inductor near it. Thus,

❖ Mutual inductance is the ability of one inductor to induce a voltage across a

neighbouring inductor, measured in henrys (H).

DOT CONVENTION
The polarity of mutual voltage M di/dt is not easy to determine, because four terminals are
involved. The choice of the correct polarity for M di/dt is made by examining the orientation
or particular way in which both coils are physically wound and applying Lenz’s law in
conjunction with the right-hand rule. Since it is inconvenient to show the construction details
of coils on a circuit schematic, we apply the dot convention in circuit analysis.
By this convention, a dot is placed in the circuit at one end of each of the two magnetically
coupled coils to indicate the direction of the magnetic flux if current enters that dotted terminal
of the coil.
The dots are used along with the dot convention to determine the polarity of the mutual voltage
as shown in Fig (a)

Fig (1) Illustration of the dot convention

The dot Convention is stated as follows:

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

(a) If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the mutual
voltage in the second coil is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
Alternatively,
(b) If a current leaves the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the mutual
voltage in the second coil is negative at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
Application of dot convention is illustrated in the following Figures

`
(2a) (2b) (2c)

(2d)
Dot convention for coupled coils in series. For the coils in Fig. (3a), the total inductance is
𝑳 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 + 𝟐𝑴 Series aiding connection
For the coils in Fig. (3a), the total inductance is
𝑳 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 − 𝟐𝑴 Series -opposing connection

(a) Series aiding connection (a) Series -opposing connection

Dot convention for coils in series; the sign indicates the polarity of the mutual

LINEAR TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is generally a four-terminal device comprising two (or more) magnetically
coupled coils.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

Fig (a) A linear transformer

The coil that is directly connected to the voltage source is called the primary winding. The
coil connected to the load is called the secondary winding.
The resistances 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are included to account for the losses (power dissipation) in the
coils.
The transformer is said to be linear if the coils are wound on a magnetically linear material—
a material for which the magnetic permeability is constant. Such materials include air, plastic,
Bakelite, and wood. In fact, most materials are magnetically linear.
Linear transformers are sometimes called air-core transformers, although not all of them are
necessarily air-core. They are used in radio and TV sets.
Replacement of a magnetically coupled circuit by an equivalent circuit with
no magnetic coupling.
To replace the linear transformer in Fig. (a) by an equivalent T or 𝜋 circuit, a circuit that
would have no mutual inductance.:
1. Ignore the resistances of the coils and assume that the coils have a common ground as shown
in Fig. (b). The assumption of a common ground for the two coils is a major restriction of
the equivalent circuits.
2. A common ground is imposed on the linear transformer in Fig. (b) in view of the necessity
of having a common ground in the equivalent T or 𝜋 circuit as shown in Figure (c) and (d).

(b) Equivalent Circuit (c) An equivalent T circuit.

(d) 𝜋 An equivalent circuit

The voltage-current relationships for the primary and secondary coils give the matrix equation

(1)
By matrix inversion, this can be written as:

(2)
The goal is to match Eqs. (1) and (2) with the corresponding equations for the T and 𝜋 networks.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

(3)

If the circuits in Figs. (b) and (c) are equivalents, Eqs. (1) and (3) must be identical. Equating
terms in the impedance matrices of Eqs. (1) and (3) leads to

(4)
For the 𝜋 (or ∆) network in Fig. (d), nodal analysis gives the terminal equations as:

(5)
Equating terms in admittance matrices of Eqs. (2) and (5), we obtain

IDEAL TRANSFORMERS
An ideal transformer is one with perfect coupling (k = 1). It consists of two (or more) coils with
a large number of turns wound on a common core of high permeability.
Because of this high permeability of the core, the flux links all the turns of both coils, thereby
resulting in a perfect coupling.
A transformer is said to be ideal if it has the following properties:
1. Coils have very large reactances (𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , M →∞).
2. Coupling coefficient is equal to unity (k = 1).
3. Primary and secondary coils are lossless (𝑅1 = 0 = 𝑅2 ).
Thus, an ideal transformer is a unity-coupled, lossless transformer in which the primary
and secondary coils have infinite self-inductances.
Iron-core transformers are close approximations to ideal transformers. These are used in
power systems and electronics.
Figure (a) shows a typical ideal transformer; the circuit symbol is in Fig. (b). The vertical lines
between the coils indicate an iron core as distinct from the air core used in linear transformers.
The primary winding has 𝑁1 turns; the secondary winding has 𝑁2 turns.

(a) Ideal transformer (b) Circuit symbol for ideal transformers

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding as shown in Fig.(c), the same
magnetic flux φ goes through both windings. According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across
the primary winding is:

Fig (c)
𝑑∅1
𝑣1 = 𝑁1 (1)
𝑑𝑡
while that across the secondary winding is:
𝑑∅1
𝑣2 = 𝑁2 (2)
𝑑𝑡
Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (1), we get
𝑣2 𝑁2
= = 𝑛 (3)
𝑣1 𝑁1
where n is, again, the turns ratio or transformation ratio. We can use the phasor voltages 𝑉1
and 𝑉2 rather than the instantaneous values 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 . Thus, Eq. (3) may be written as
𝑉2 𝑁2
= = 𝑛 (4)
𝑉1 𝑁1
For the reason of power conservation, the energy supplied to the primary must equal the energy
absorbed by the secondary, since there are no losses in an ideal transformer. This implies that:
𝑣1 𝑖1 = 𝑣2 𝑖2 (5)
In phasor form, Eq. (5) in conjunction with Eq. (4) becomes
𝐼1 𝑉2
= = 𝑛 (6)
𝐼2 𝑉1
showing that the primary and secondary currents are related to the turns ratio in the inverse
manner as the voltages. Thus,
𝐼2 𝑁1 1
= = (7)
𝐼1 𝑁2 𝑛
When n = 1, we generally call the transformer an isolation transformer. If n > 1, we have a
step-up transformer, as the voltage is increased from primary to secondary (V2 > V1 ). On the
other hand, if n < 1, the transformer is a step-down transformer, since the voltage is decreased
from primary to secondary (V2 <V1 ).
A step-down transformer is one whose secondary voltage is less than its primary voltage.
A step-up transformer is one whose secondary voltage is greater than its primary voltage.
Polarity of the Voltages and the Direction of the Currents for the Transformer
Consider figure (c) below:

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

If the polarity of 𝑽𝟏 or 𝑽𝟐 or the direction of 𝑰𝟏 or 𝑰𝟐 is changed, n in Eqs. (3) to (7) may

need to be replaced by −n. The two simple rules to follow are:

1. If 𝑽𝟏 and 𝑽𝟐 are both positive or both negative at the dotted terminals, use +n in Eq. (4).
Otherwise, use −n.
2. If 𝑰𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐 both enter into or both leave the dotted terminals, use −n in Eq. (7). Otherwise,
use +n
The rules are demonstrated with the four circuits in Fig. 1-4

(1) (2)

(3) (4)
Fig 1-4: Typical circuits illustrating proper voltage polarities and current directions in an
ideal transformer.

Rotating Machine
In the rotating electrical machine, an electromechanical energy conversion takes place. In all
the rotating electrical machines, a change in flux is closely associated with the mechanical
motion to cause electromechanical energy conversion.
When mechanical input energy is converted to an electrical energy, the machine is called
Generator. The electrical energy is produced in the form of a generated voltage or emf. If the
emf is constant, the machine is called d.c. Generator, while if the emf is alternating the machine
is called a.c Generator or an Alternator.
When electrical input energy is converted to a mechanical energy, the machine is called Motor.
If the input electrical energy is in the form of d.c., voltage is called d.c. Motor, and if it is in
the form of a.c voltage, it is called a.c Motor.
Thus, various electrical rotating machine are classified as a.c. machines and d.c. machines.
Many features of all these rotating machines are same. The various general expression such as
torque, generated voltage etc are applicable to all these rotating machines. Thus, all these
machine work on the same basic principle.

General Construction of Rotating Machine

It is known that whenever there is a relative motion between a conductor and the flux, the e.m.f
is induced in the conductor. This is the principle of Generator. While whenever a current
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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field then it experiences a mechanical force, which
is the principle of a Motor. Hence every rotating machine must possess the following
Mechanical parts/features:
• Stationary member called Stator
• Rotating member called Rotor
• Shaft
• Slip Ring, brush assembly
• Bearings
In addition to these, a machine has:
Field winding: An arrangement of winding/conductor which is used as a primary source of
flux when current is passed through it.
Armature winding: An arrangement of winding/conductor to form a winding in which emf.
is induced.
The current flowing through the field winding, used to produce main flux is called magnetizing
current, exciting current or field current.
The current flowing through the armature winding varies as the load on the machine varies, so
it is called a load current or an armature current.
There is an appropriate air gap between a stator and a rotor of the machine. In most of the
machines, armature winding is placed on the stator, while the field winding is placed on the
rotor for practical point of view

Figure: Cross sectional view of a DC Machine

In D.C machine, the field winding is on the stator, while the armature winding is on the rotor.
The physical structure of the machine consists of two parts: the stator and the rotor.
The stationary part consists of the main frame (yoke), and the pole pieces, which project
inward and provide a path for the magnetic flux. The ends of the pole pieces that are near the
rotor spread out over the rotor surface to distribute its flux evenly over the rotor surface. These

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

ends are called the pole shoes. The exposed surface of a pole shoe is called a pole face, and the
distance between the pole face and the rotor is the air gap.
Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke.

Function
• It serves as the purpose of outermost cover of the d.c. machine. So that insulating materials
get protected from harmful atmospheric element like moisture, dust and various gasses like
SO2 , acidic fumes etc.
• It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic
flux produced by the field winding.
• It provides mechanical support for the pole
• It forms a part of magnetic circuit. It provides a path of low reluctance for magnetic flux.
The low reluctance part is important to avoid wastage of power to provide same flux. Large
current and hence power is necessary if the part has high reluctance, to provide same flux.]

Choice of material

To provide low reluctance path, it is must be made up some magnetic material. It is prepared
by using cast iron because it is cheapest. For large machines rolled steel, cast steel, silicon steel
is used which provides high permeability low reluctance and gives good mechanical strength.
of cast iron or steel.

Poles
Each pole is divided into two parts namely: (1) Pole core (2) Pole Shoe

Function of pole core and pole shoe:

• Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux
• It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the next pole.

• Pole shoes enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is necessary to
produce larger induced emf. To achieve this, pole shoe has been given a particular shape.
• Pole shoe support field coils, and also spread out the flux in air gap uniformly

Figure: Pole Core and Poles Shoes representation

Choice of material:
• It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or steel
• As it is required a definite shape and size, laminated construction is used. The lamination of
required size and shape are stamped together to get a pole which is bolted to the yoke
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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

Field Winding: It is wound on the pole core with a definite direction

Function:
• To carry current due to which pole core, on which the field winding is placed behaves as an
electromagnet, producing necessary flux.
• As it helps in producing magnetic field i.e., exciting the pole as an electromagnet, it is called
Field winding or exciting winding.

Choice of Material
• Aluminium or Copper is the choice because it has to carry current, hence obviously made
of some conducting material.

• Field coils are required to take any kind of shape and bend about pole core and copper has
good pliability i.e., it can be easily bend. So copper is the proper choice

NOTE Field winding is divided into various coils called field coils. These are connected in
series with each other and wound in such a direction around pole cores, such that alternate
‘N’ and ‘S’ poles are formed.

Armature: It is the rotor of a dc machine

It is further divided into two parts namely:
(1) Armature core (ii) Armature winding

Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It consists of slot on its periphery
and the air duct to permit the air flow through armature which serve as cooling purpose.

Figure: Armature of DC machine

Functions
• Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e., armature conductors
• To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field winding
Choice of material
• It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel, as it has to provide a low
reluctance path to the flux.
• The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current losses as
low as possible.

Armature winding
It is the interconnection of the conductors, placed in the slot provided on the armature
periphery. When the armature is rotated, in case of generator, magnetic flux get cut by the
armature conductors and emf gets induced in them.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

Armature Winding

Function
• Generation of e.mf. takes place in the armature winding in case of Generators
• To carry the current supplied in case of d.c. Motors
• To do the useful work in the external circuit

Choice of Material
It is made with copper, as armature winding carries entire current which depends on external
load, it has to be made up of conducting material.

It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The armature conductors
are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature winding can be wound
by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or wave windings
are generally used. A double layer winding means that each armature slot will carry two
different coils.
Commutator
The basic nature of emf induced in the armature conductors is alternating. This needs
rectification in case of d.c. generator, which is possibly by a device call commutator.

Functions: Figure: Commutator of DC machine

1. To facilitate the collection of current generated from the armature conductor in case of
generator
2. To convert internally developed alternating emf to unidirectional (d.c.) emf.
3. To produce unidirectional torque in case of motors.
4. in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors

Choice of Material
• It is made up of copper segment, as it collects current from armature.
• It is cylindrical in shape and it is made up of wedge-shaped copper segments of hard drawn,
these segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica. The number of segments
is equal to the number of armature coils.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

• Each commutator segment is connected to an armature coil by means copper lug and the
commutator is keyed to the shaft

Brushes and Brushes Gear

Brushes are stationary and resting on the surface of the commutator and slide on the segment
when the commutator rotates, keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.

Function
To collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary external circuit.

Choice of material
• Brushes are normally made up of soft material like Carbon

• Brushes are rectangular in shape. They are housed in brush holders, which are usually of
box type. The brushes are made to press on the commutator surface by means of a spring,
whose tension can be adjusted by the help of lever.
• A flexible copper conductor called pig tail is used to connect the brush to the external circuit.

Armature Winding of A DC Machine

Based on type of winding connections we classified armature winding of a dc machine into
two types. These winding connections are same for DC generator & DC motor

Types of Windings in DC Machine,

1. Lap winding.
2. Wave winding.
Lap winding of a DC Machine
In this type of winding the completing end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment
and to the start end of adjacent coil located under the same pole and similarly all coils are
connected. This type of winding is known as lap because the sides of successive coils overlap
each other.

Figure: Lap winding

• Lap winding may be simplex (single) or multiplex (duplex or triplex) winding. In simplex
lap winding the connection of the winding is that there are as many parallel paths as there
are number of poles.

• Whereas for duplex, the number of parallel paths is equal to twice that of the number of
poles and for triplex it is thrice. For this reason, the lap winding is called multiple or parallel
winding.
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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

Simplex lap winding Duplex lap winding

The sole purposes of such type of windings are,

• To increase the number of parallel paths enabling the armature current to increase i.e., for
high current output.
• To improve commutation as the current per conductor decreases.
Wave winding of a DC Machine
In wave winding the coils which are carrying current in one direction are connected in series
circuit and the carrying current in opposite direction are connected in another series circuit. A
wave winding is shown in figure.

Wave winding
If after passing once around the armature the winding falls in a slot to the left of its starting
point then winding is said to be retrogressive. If it fails one slot to the right it is progressive.

Progressive wave winding Retrogressive wave winding

Comparison Between Lap Winding and Wave Winding
Lap Winding
• Number of parallel paths = mP. Where, m = multiplicity
Example: For instance, the number of parallel paths for a 6-pole duplex lap winding is given
by 6 x 2 = 12 paths
• The total number of poles are equal to the total number of brushes

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

• If Ia is the total armature current, then current per parallel path is Ia /P.
• Lap winding is used for low voltage and high current machines.

Wave winding
• Number of parallel paths are equal to 2m, where m is the multiplicity
• The number of brushes required are two irrespective of the number of poles
• If Ia is the total armature current then current carried by each path or conductor is Ia/2.
• Since a wave winding is a series winding, it is used for high voltage and low current machine

Principle of Operation of a D.C. Generator

All the generators work on a principle of dynamically induced e.m.f. This principle nothing but
the Faraday’s law of electromagnetism induction. It states that, ‘whenever the number of
magnetic lines of force i.e., flux linking with a conductor or a coil change, an electromotive
force is set up in that conductor or coil.’ The change in flux associated with the conductor can
exist only when there exists a relative motion between a conductor and the flux. The relative
motion can be achieved by rotating conductor with respect to flux or by rotating flux with
respect to a conductor. So, a voltage gets generated in a conductor, as long as there exists a
relative motion between conductor and the flux.
Such an induced e.m.f. which is due to the physical movement of coil or conductor with
respect to flux or movement of flux with respect to coil or conductor is called dynamically
induced e.m.f.
Key Point:
So, a generating action requires following basic components to exist,
i) The conductor or a coil
ii) The relative motion between conductor and flux.
In a particular generator, the conductors are rotated to cut the magnetic flux, keeping flux
stationary. To have a large voltage as the output, the number of conductors are connected
together in a specific manner, to form a winding. This winding is called armature winding of a
d.c. machine. The part on which this winding is kept is called armature of a d.c. machine. To
have the rotation of conductors, the conductors placed on the armature are rotated with the help
of some external device. Such an external device is called a prime mover. The commonly used
prime movers are diesel engines, steam engines, steam turbines, water turbines etc. The
necessary magnetic flux is produced by current carrying winding which is called field winding.
The direction of the induced e.m.f. can be obtained by using Fleming’s right-hand role

Emf Equation of a DC Generator

As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In the case of a generator, the emf
of rotation is called the Generated emf or Armature emf and is denoted as Er = Eg. In the case
of a motor, the emf of rotation is known as Back emf or Counter emf and represented as Er =
Eb. The expression for emf is same for both the operations. I.e., for Generator as well as for
Motor
Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor
Let,
• P – Number of poles of the machine
• ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

• Z – Total number of armature conductors.

• N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
• A – Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is given as:
Flux cut by one conductor = Pϕ….. wb
Time taken to complete one revolution is given as:
𝟔𝟎
𝒕=
𝑵
Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be
P𝛟
𝒆=
𝒕
Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get
P𝛟 P𝛟𝐍
𝒆= = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝟔𝟎⁄𝑵 𝟔𝟎
The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.
Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature terminals is
given by the equation shown below.
P𝛟𝐍 𝒁 PZ𝛟𝐍
𝑬= × =
𝟔𝟎 𝑨 𝟔𝟎𝑨
PZ𝛟𝐧
𝑬=
𝑨
Where n is the speed in revolution per second (r.p.s) and given as
𝒏 = 𝑵⁄𝟔𝟎
For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A)
are constant. Hence, the equation (5) can be written as
𝑬 = 𝑲𝛟𝐧
Where, K is a constant and given as
𝑲 = 𝑷𝒁⁄𝑨
Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as
𝑬 ∝ 𝛟𝐧 𝐎𝐑
𝑬 = 𝑲𝟏 𝛟𝐍
Where K1 is another constant and hence induced emf equation can be written as
𝑬 ∝ 𝛟𝐍 𝐎𝐑
𝑬 ∝ 𝛟𝛚
Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as

ω = 𝟐𝝅𝑵⁄𝟔𝟎

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole. The
polarity of induced emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of
rotation. If either of the two is reverse the polarity changes, but if two are reversed the polarity
remains unchanged.

This induced emf is a fundamental phenomenon for all the DC Machines whether they are
working as a generator or motor.
If the DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the equation shown
below.
PZ𝛟𝐧
𝑬𝒈 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
𝑨
Where 𝑬𝒈 is the Generated Emf
If the DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the equation shown
below.
PZ𝛟𝐧
𝑬𝒃 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
𝑨
In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (𝑬𝒃 ) because it acts opposite to the supply
voltage.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC MOTOR
The DC motor is the device which converts the direct current into the mechanical work. It
works on the principle of Lorentz Law, which states that “the current carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic and electric field experience a force”. And that force is called the Lorentz force.
The Fleming left-hand rule gives the direction of the force.
Fleming Left Hand Rule
If the thumb, middle finger and the index finger of the left hand are displaced from each other
by an angle of 90°, the middle finger represents the direction of the magnetic field. The index
finger represents the direction of the current, and the thumb shows the direction of forces acting
on the conductor

Figure: Flemings left hand rule

The formula calculates the magnitude of the force,
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 Newton
Before understanding the working of DC motor first, we have to know about their construction.
The armature and stator are the two main parts of the DC motor. The armature is the rotating
part, and the stator is their stationary part. The armature coil is connected to the DC supply.
The armature coil consists the commutators and brushes. The commutators convert the AC
induces in the armature into DC and brushes transfer the current from rotating part of the motor
to the stationary external load. The armature is placed between the north and south pole of the
permanent or electromagnet.
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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

For simplicity, consider that the armature has only one coil which is placed between the
magnetic field shown below in the figure A. When the DC supply is given to the armature coil
the current starts flowing through it. This current develops their own field around the coil.
Figure B shows the field induces around the coil.

Figure A Figure B
Fig: magnetic field induces around the coil

By the interaction of the fields (produces by the coil and the magnet), resultant field develops
across the conductor. The resultant field tends to regain its original position, i.e., in the axis of
the main field. The field exerts the force at the ends of the conductor, and thus the coil starts
rotating.

Fig C: Field produced due to poles alone

Let the field produces by the main field be 𝐹𝑚 , and this field rotates in the clockwise direction.
When the current flows in the coil, they produce their own magnetic field says Fr. The field 𝐹𝑟
tries to come in the direction of the main field. Thereby, the torque act on the armature coil.

Fig: Field produced due to conductors alone

The actual DC motor consists a large number of armature coils. The speed of the motor is
directly proportional to the number of coils used in the motor. These coils are kept under the
impact of the magnetic field.
The one end of the conductors are kept under the influence of north pole, and the other end is
kept under the influence of the South pole. The current enters into the armature coil through

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

the north pole and move outwards through the south pole. When the coil moves from one brush
to another, at the same time the polarity of the coil also changes. Thus, the direction of the force
or torque acting on the coil remains same.
The torque induces in the coil become zero when the armature coil is perpendicular to the main
field. The zero torque means the motor stops rotating. For solving this problem, the number of
armature coil is used in the rotor. So, if one of their coils is perpendicular to the field, then the
other coils induce the torque. And the rotor moves continuously.
Also, for obtaining the continuous torque, the arrangement is kept in such a way that whenever
the coils cut the Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA) of the magnet the direction of current in the
coils become reversed. This can be done with the help of the commutator.

Back Emf and its Significance in DC Motor

When a dc voltage V is applied across the motor terminals, the armature starts rotating due to
the torque developed in it.
As the armature rotates, armature conductors cut the pole magnetic field, therefore, as per law
of electromagnetic induction, an emf called back emf is induced in them.
The back emf (also called counter emf) is given by:
PZ𝛟𝐧
𝑬𝒃 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
𝑨
As all other parameters are constant, therefore, Eb ∝ N
As per Lenz's law, "the induced emf always opposes the cause of its production”. Here, the
cause of generation of back emf is the rotation of armature. Rotation of armature is due to
armature torque. Torque is due to armature current and armature current is due to supply dc
voltage V. Therefore, the ultimate cause of production of Eb is the supply voltage V.
Therefore, back emf is always directed opposite to supply voltage V

Significance of back emf in dc motor

• As the back emf opposes supply voltage V, therefore, supply voltage has to force current
through the armature against the back emf, to keep armature rotating. The electric work
done in overcoming and causing the current to flow against the back emf is converted into
mechanical energy developed in the armature.
It follows, therefore, that energy conversion in a dc motor is only possible due to the production
of back emf.
Mechanical power developed in the armature= 𝑬𝒃 𝑰𝒂

• Back emf makes dc motor a self-regulating motor i.e., 𝑬𝒃 makes motor to adjust 𝑰𝒂 automatically
as per the load torque requirement. Let’s see how.
𝑽 − 𝑬𝒃
𝑰𝒂 =
𝑹𝒂
V and 𝑹𝒂 are fixed, therefore, armature current 𝑰𝒂 dpends on back emf, which in turn depends
on speed of the motor.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

• when the motor is running at no-load, small torque (Ta=K𝑰𝒂 ) is required by the motor to
overcome friction and windage. Therefore, a small current is drawn by the motor armature
and the back emf is almost equal to the supply voltage.

• If the motor is suddenly loaded, the load torque becomes greater than the armature torque
and the motor starts to slow down. As motor speed decreases, back emf decreases and
therefore, armature current starts increasing. With increasing 𝑰𝒂 , armature torque increases
and at some point, it becomes equal to the load torque. At that moment, motor stops slowing
down and keeps running at this new speed.

• If the load on the motor is suddenly reduced, the driving torque becomes more than the load
torque and the motor starts accelerating. As the motor speed increases, back emf increases
and therefore, armature current decreases. Due to this reducing armature current, armature
developed torque decreases and at some point, becomes equal to the load torque. That point
onwards, motor will stop accelerating and will start rotating uniformly at this new slightly
increased speed.
Power Equation of a D.C. Motor
The voltage equation of a d.c. motor is given by,
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by 𝐼𝑎 we get:
𝑉𝐼𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎
This equation is called power equation of a d.c. motor
𝑉𝐼𝑎 is Net electrical power input to the armature measured in watts.
𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎 is Power loss due the resistance of the armature called armature copper loss.
So, difference between 𝑉𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎 i.e., input - losses gives the output of the armature.
So, 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 is called electrical equivalent of gross mechanical power developed by the armature.
This is denoted as 𝑃𝑚 . Therefore:
Power input to the armature - Armature copper loss = Gross mechanical power developed in the armature\

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Introduction:
The most commonly used machine for generation of electrical power for commercial
applications is the synchronous generator. Such a synchronous generator is also called an
alternator since it generates alternating voltage. A Synchronous Machine has two main parts,
viz. the stator and the rotor just like a DC Machine or an Induction Machine

Basic principle of operation of a Synchronous Generator:

In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor winding, which produces a
rotor magnetic field. The rotor of the generator is then turned by a prime mover, producing a
rotating magnetic field within the machine. This rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase
set of voltages within the stator windings of the generator.
Two terms commonly used to describe the windings on an Electric Machine are ‘Field
windings’ and ‘Armature windings. In general, the term "field windings" applies to the
windings that produce the main magnetic field in a machine, and the term “armature windings"
applies to the windings where the main voltage is induced.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

Constructional details of a three phase Synchronous Machine:

In a.c. machines, the field winding is on the rotor while the armature is on the stator. As
field winding is rotating, the d.c voltage is supplied to it with the help of slip ring and brush
assembly
A synchronous machine works as a generator when the rotor is rotated and as a motor when a
three-phase supply is connected across its armature. The basic construction of a synchronous
generator and a synchronous motor is the same. In a dc machine, the field system is stationary
and the-armature winding is placed on the rotor. The same arrangement can be done in a
synchronous machine also. But in a synchronous machine, due to a number of advantages, the
field system is made rotating and the armature winding is placed in stator slots. These two
possible arrangements of armature and field system are shown in the Figure 1.
The two possible arrangements in synchronous machine construction are: the arrangement in
which the field is stationary and the armature is rotating as shown in Figure (a) has limited
applications. In almost all commercial synchronous machines, rotating field and stationary
armature system as shown in figure (b) is used for the following reasons.

(a)

(b)
Figure 1: (a) Stationary field and rotating armature system as in a DC machine
(b) Rotating field and stationary armature system as in an alternator

Advantages of Rotating Field and Stationary Armature System:

The main reasons why a stationary armature and rotating field construction for three-phase
synchronous machines is employed in all commercial applications are as follows:

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

1. Alternators are used to produce high voltage in the range of kV. This gets induced in
armature. So stationary armature helps to provide large space to accommodate large number
of conductors.
2. It is better to keep high voltage winding stationary and away from centrifugal forces caused
due to rotation.
3. It is easy to collect large currents from the stationary member
4. The voltage level required to supply field winding is low, of the order of 110V or 220V d.c.
This can be easily supplied to a rotating part through slipring and brush assembly without
any problems of sparking.
5. Armature requires more insulation while field requires less insulation. Less insulation means
low inertia hence easy from rotation point of view
6. Ventilation for high voltage can be improved if it is kept stationary
Therefore, overall rotating field construction is simple. The stationary armature has a core and
the slots to hold the armature winding. It uses laminated construction to keep eddy current
losses to a minimum value, while the high-grade magnetic materials is used to keep down the
hysteresis losses

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Theory of operation:
The basic concept of a synchronous motor is explained with the help of the figure below which
shows a two-pole Synchronous Motor. The field current 𝐼𝐹 of the motor produces a steady-
state magnetic field 𝐵𝑅 . A three-phase set of voltages is applied to the stator, which produces
a three-phase current flow in the armature windings. This current flow produces a uniform
rotating magnetic field 𝐵𝑆

So, there are now two magnetic fields present in the machine, and the rotor field will tend to
line up with the stator field. Since the stator magnetic field is rotating, the rotor magnetic field
(and the rotor itself) will constantly try to catch up with the rotating stator magnetic field. The
larger the angle between the two magnetic fields (up to a certain maximum value), the greater
the torque on the rotor of the machine. The basic principle of synchronous motor operation is
that the rotor "chases" the rotating stator magnetic field around in a circle, never quite catching
up with it but with the same speed.

Figure: A two pole Synchronous Motor

Since a Synchronous Motor is the same physical machine as a Synchronous Generator, all the
basic speed, power, and torque equations of synchronous Generators apply to Synchronous
Motors also.

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY II (GET 202) BY ENGR. ADELEKE HAFIZ ADESUPO (EEED, AFIT, KADUNA)

General Procedure of Starting Synchronous Motor

1. Give a three phase a.c. supply to a three-phase winding. This will produce rotating magnetic
field rotating at synchronous speed 𝑁𝑠 r.p.m.
2. Then drive the rotor by some external means like diesel engine in the direction of rotating
magnetic field, at a speed very near or equal to synchronous speed.
3. Switch on the d.c. supply given to the rotor which will produce rotor poles. Now there are
two fields, one is rotating magnetic field produced by stator while the other is produced by
rotor which is physically rotated almost at the speed as that of rotating magnetic field.
4. At a particular instant, both the fields get magnetically locked. The stator filed pulls rotor
field into synchronism. Then the external device used to rotate the rotor can b removed. But
rotor will continue to rotate at the same speed as that of rotating magnetic field i.e., 𝑁𝑠 due
to magnetic locking.
References,
• Fundamental of Electric Circuits - Alexander Sadiku
• U.A. Bakshi and M.V. Bakshi-Electromechanical Energy Conversion
• B.L Theraja and A.K. Theraja- Electrical Technology (Volume II)
• Electric Machinery Fundamentals, Stephen J. Chapmen, Tata Mc Graw –Hill Publishers.
• P. C. Sen, “Principles of Electric Machines and Power Electronics”, John Wiley & Sons,
2007
• Electric Machines by I.J. Nagrath & D.P. Kothari, Tata Mc Graw
• Electrical Machines, P.S. Bimbra, Khanna

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