Q.1What is Bluetooth and how does it work?

Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication technology that allows devices to exchange data over
short distances using radio waves. It works by creating a personal area network (PAN) that automatically
connects compatible devices within a range of about 10 meters.

Q.2Mention any two types of wireless transmission media.

Microwaves – Used for long-distance and satellite communications.

Radio waves – Commonly used in broadcasting and Wi-Fi connections.

Q.3What is SMTP used for?

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used for sending and forwarding emails over the Internet. It
enables communication between email servers to deliver messages to the recipient.

Q.4Define repeater and its function.

A repeater is a network device that receives a signal, amplifies it, and retransmits it. Its main function is to
extend the range of a network by boosting weak signals over long distances.

Q.5What is an Ethernet cable?

An Ethernet cable is a type of network cable used for wired connections in LANs. It connects devices like
computers, routers, and switches to transmit data efficiently.
Q.6Write a short note on internetworking. Explain its types.
Internetworking refers to the process of connecting two or more different types of computer networks to
form a larger, unified network. The main goal is to allow communication and data exchange between
devices on different network architectures, protocols, or media. The internet itself is a classic example of
internetworking, where millions of devices and networks across the world are interconnected.

Internetworking involves hardware devices such as routers, switches, and gateways, as well as protocols
that define how data is transmitted. The purpose is to ensure seamless communication, efficient routing of
data, and sharing of resources across networks.

Types of internetworking:

1. Intranet – A private internal network used within an organization for communication and data
sharing.

2. Extranet – A private network that allows limited access to outsiders like business partners.

3. Internet – A global network of interconnected networks that enables public access and
communication worldwide.

Internetworking plays a key role in enabling global connectivity and collaboration.

Q.7Compare and contrast routers and repeaters.

Routers and repeaters are both network devices but serve very different functions within a communication
network.

Router:
A router is an intelligent device that operates at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. It connects
multiple networks and determines the best path for data packets to travel. Routers use IP addresses to
route data between devices on different networks and can provide features like NAT (Network Address
Translation), DHCP, and firewall protection. They can handle wired and wireless traffic and often connect
LANs to the Internet.

Repeater:
A repeater is a simpler device that works at the Physical Layer (Layer 1). Its main job is to regenerate and
amplify weak signals over long distances so that data can travel farther without degradation. It does not
analyze or route data but merely ensures that the signal remains strong.

Comparison:

• Routers are more complex and handle routing decisions; repeaters only amplify signals.

• Routers work at Layer 3; repeaters at Layer 1.

• Routers deal with logical addressing (IP); repeaters do not use addresses.

Both are essential in different parts of a network setup.

Q.8Explain subnetting. Why is it used in networking?
Subnetting is a process in networking where a large IP network is divided into smaller, more manageable
subnetworks or “subnets.” It is done by borrowing bits from the host portion of the IP address to create
additional network addresses.

For example, an IP address with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 can be further divided using a mask like
255.255.255.192 to create multiple subnets.

Why is subnetting used?

1. Efficient IP address utilization: Subnetting helps prevent the wastage of IP addresses by allocating
only as many as needed for each subnet.

2. Improved network performance: Smaller subnets reduce broadcast traffic and make
troubleshooting easier.

3. Enhanced security: Different departments or functions can be isolated using subnets.

4. Network management: Subnetting simplifies network administration and scaling.

Subnetting is a fundamental concept in IP networking and is essential for organizing large networks,
especially in enterprises and service provider environments.

Q.9What are the functions of a network bridge?

A network bridge is a device used to connect two or more network segments, making them function as a
single network. It operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and uses MAC (Media Access
Control) addresses to forward data.

Functions of a network bridge:

1. Connecting network segments: Bridges link separate LAN segments so that devices in different
parts of a building or network can communicate as if they were on the same segment.

2. Filtering traffic: A bridge can filter traffic by checking MAC addresses and forwarding only necessary
data. This reduces unnecessary traffic and improves network efficiency.

3. Collision domain separation: Bridges help in reducing collisions by dividing the network into
segments, which lowers network congestion.

4. Learning and forwarding: Bridges learn which devices are on which segment by examining the
source MAC addresses of incoming frames, then make forwarding decisions accordingly.

Bridges are especially useful in extending networks while maintaining performance and reducing traffic.
Q.10What is the role of the Network Layer in the OSI model?
The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. Its primary role is to
manage the delivery of packets from the source to the destination across multiple networks. It is
responsible for logical addressing, routing, and packet forwarding.

Key functions of the Network Layer:

1. Logical addressing: It assigns IP addresses to devices and ensures that data is sent to the correct
destination.

2. Routing: This layer determines the best path for data packets to travel from the source to the
destination. Routers operate at this layer to make routing decisions.

3. Packet forwarding: Once the route is decided, the data packets are forwarded accordingly.

4. Fragmentation and reassembly: If a data packet is too large for a network to handle, the Network
Layer breaks it into smaller fragments and reassembles them at the destination.

5. Error handling and diagnostics: Tools like ICMP (used by ping and traceroute) operate at this layer
to report errors and test connectivity.

The Network Layer is essential for enabling communication between devices that are not directly
connected and ensures data reaches the correct endpoint across networks.
Q.11, 14 Explain electronic mail and describe how email works using SMTP.
Electronic mail, or email, is a method of exchanging digital messages between people using electronic
devices connected to a network. It is one of the most widely used communication tools on the internet
today. Emails can contain text, images, documents, and other types of attachments. It is fast, efficient, and
can be accessed globally using computers or mobile devices.

How email works using SMTP:

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is the core protocol used to send emails from one server to another. It
operates at the Application Layer of the OSI model and uses port 25 (or 587 for secure transmission).
When a user sends an email using an email client (like Gmail, Outlook, or Thunderbird), the following steps
occur:

1. Message Creation: The user writes the email and clicks "send."

2. SMTP Client Contact: The email client connects to the configured SMTP server.

3. Message Transfer: The SMTP server checks the recipient’s domain and determines whether the
message is to be delivered locally or to another server.

4. Server-to-Server Communication: If the recipient is on a different domain, the SMTP server

communicates with the recipient's mail server using DNS to find the correct IP address.

5. Delivery to Mail Server: Once the email reaches the recipient's mail server, it is stored in the
recipient's inbox.

6. Retrieval by Recipient: The recipient accesses the message using protocols like POP3 or IMAP.

SMTP is a push protocol, which means it pushes emails to the recipient’s server. It ensures proper routing
and delivery of messages over the internet.
Q.12,13,15 Define transmission media and explain different types of wireless
transmission media.
Transmission media refers to the physical or wireless pathways that carry data between computers,
devices, or networks. It is the medium through which the signal or data is transmitted from one place to
another. Transmission media can be broadly classified into guided (wired) and unguided (wireless) media.

Wireless transmission media use electromagnetic waves to transmit data without using physical cables.
These are essential for mobile and remote communication systems. The main types of wireless
transmission media are:

1. Radio Waves:
These are low-frequency electromagnetic waves used for AM/FM radio, television broadcasts, and
Wi-Fi. They can travel long distances and can penetrate through walls and buildings. Radio waves
support omnidirectional transmission, making them suitable for general broadcast communication.

2. Microwaves:
These are higher frequency waves used for point-to-point communication such as satellite links and
mobile phone towers. Microwaves require a line-of-sight and are commonly used for long-distance
telephone and TV transmissions. They offer higher bandwidth compared to radio waves.

3. Infrared Waves:
These are short-range waves used for remote controls and some wireless computer peripherals.
Infrared requires direct line-of-sight and is typically used indoors because sunlight and walls can
interfere with its signal.

4. Satellite Communication:
In this, signals are sent to a satellite and then transmitted back to a receiving station. It is widely
used for GPS, TV broadcasting, and internet access in remote areas.

Each type of wireless media has its advantages and limitations depending on range, speed, and
interference, but all play a crucial role in modern wireless communication.