FLOWERS

Reproduction serve two very different functions

(1) producing offsprings that are IDENTICAL to parental
genes
(2) producing offsprings that GENETICALLY DIFFERENT
from the parents.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Progeny are GENETICALLY Progeny are GENETICALLY
DIVERSE. IDENTICAL

Others are MORE ADAPTED than All progeny are adapted as the parent,
the parents but others may be less but NONE IS MORE ADAPTED.
adapted.

Isolated individuals CANNOT Isolated individuals CAN REPRODUCE.

REPRODUCE.

Changes in habitat MAY All progeny can be ADVERSELY

ADVERSELY AFFECT some AFFECTED by MINOR CHANGES.
progeny, but some ADAPT TO NEW
CONDITIONS.
Offsprings CAN RAPIDLY take over new
Offspring CANNOT RAPIDLY take sites.
over new habitats, but some can
COLONIZE sites that are not
suitable for parents.

Diversity is important in Some plants can reproduce both

reproduction to maximize the life sexually and asexually :
expectancy of a species.
Strawberries in itself reproduce
Some flowering plant are self sexually because of the presence of its
pollinated(cleistogamous) but they fruit but it can also reproduce
lose the benefit of receiving new asexually THROUGH RUNNERS.
genes my other plants.

Bamboos are perennial grasses which

Sexual reproduction also have its only flowers occasionally, some even for
NEGATIVE EFFECTS: MORE THAN 80 YEARS but they can
 It needs TWO also reproduce asexually because of
PARTNERS to propagate. the PRESENCE OF RHIZOMES.

Potential sex partners Kalanchoes, a genus of of

may be scattered—some kataka-taka, produce large
flowers may be at higher NUMBERS OF SEED
altitudes leaving them (SEXUALLY) each year, but
with fewer partners than they also PRODUCE LARGE
their lower counterparts. NUMBERS OF PLANTLETS
(ASEXUALLY) along their leaf
margins.

KALANCHOE Opuntia cholla have

PLANTS are called branches that are
maternity plants weakly attached to the
because they stem and along with its
produce plantlets leaf spines it makes it
with complete stems, easier for it to stick to
leaves, and roots. animals for dispersion.
(A.) Kalanchoe tomentosa (B.) Opuntia cholla

The farming of grapes only involves

its vegetative portion in order to
ensure that every progeny is the
same as the parent in order to
maintain its characteristics and
flavor.
(C.) Vitis vinifera

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Within ANGIOSPERMS, numerous methods of asexual
reproduction evolved. One of the most common is
FRAGMENTATION.

FRAGMENTATION is the act of separation wherein the two

separated portion each becomes an individual.
Ex.
Cacti have poorly attached branches.

Saxifrage, grass, and pineapple

families plantlets that look like bulbs
that’s called bulbil
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

The Plant Life Cycle

Diploid adults produce haploid sex cells called
GAMETES through MEIOSIS.

One sperm and one egg are then brought together to form
a NEW SINGLE DIPLOID CELL or ZYGOTE.

The plant life cycle has TWO PHASES:

SPOROPHYTE PHASE is composed of a diploid parent which then

produces haploid gametes to animals and haploid spores to plants.

GAMETOPHYTE PHASE cannot undergo syngamy

and propagates through mitosis.
HAPLOID GAMETES can fuse in a process called syngamy or
fertilization.

HAPLOID SPORES are the opposite that it cannot fuse but

undergoes MITOSIS that grows into an entire haploid plant which is
called a GAMETOPHYTE.
I I
gameto-
-1
-

phylt
H
gametes
plant
-

MALE Sperm cell

Oogamous animals
-

FEMALE Egg cell

-

Microgametophyte Microgametes

Oogamous plants
Megagametophyte Megagametes
-
 Oogamous mammals have small sperm cells (microgametes) and large egg
cells (megagametes)

Oogamous plants have females (microspores) and males (megaspores).

Having two types of spores is called

HETEROSCOPY

Most of the time there is only one sporophyte in one life cycle and produces both
microspores and megaspores.
&

FLOWER STRUCTURE

Complete Flowers Incomplete flowers

Have sepals, petals, pistils, Lacks either one of the given

and stamens parts, e.g. perianth,
androecium, and gynoecium

Perfect Flowers Imperfect Flowers

Presence of pistil and stamen Lacks pistils or stamens

SEPALS

Modified leaves that surround and enclose the

flower as they mature.

The thickest, toughest, waxiest of the flower

parts.

It protects the flower as it develops, by keeping

bacterial and fungal spores away, maintaining
high humidity inside the bud.

Colorful sepals, petaloids.

The collective term for sepals is calyx.

PETALS

Lays above the receptacle.

Leaf-like that are broad, flat, thin but they

contain other pigments other than chlorophyll.

Petals have the job to attract the correct

pollinators.

There are flowers that absorb ultraviolet light,

creating patterns that insects can only see.

Petals do not develop in wind-pollinated species.

STAMEN

Collectively known as the androecium.

Referred to as the “male part” but it is

part of the sporophyte , therefore
producing spores, not gametes.

It is composed of two parts: filament

(stalk) and anther (where pollen is
I

actually produced).

MICROGAMETOPHYTE DEVELOPMENT:
 pollen tube
[vegati ve
cell ->

Microsporocytes->4 microspores
generative sperm cells
cell -- 2

-
⑧ Generative cells
(sperm cells)

⑪ vegetative cell
(pollen tube)
vegetative nucleus

The wall of a pollen grain is a cell wall.

The inner layer called intine,

composed of cellulose

The outer layer called exine, composed

of polymer sporopollenin.

Sporopollenin is water-resistant and

resistant to almost all chemicals.

CARPELS

Constitutes the gynoecium

It has 3 main parts:

A stigma that catches pollen

grains;

A style that elevates the stigma;

And ovary megaspores are

produced.
 There are regions of tissue inside the ovary, called
placentae, that bear the ovules.

There is a short stalk called the funiculus, that

carries water and nutrients from the placenta to the
ovule through the means of a small vascular bundle.

The ovule has a central mass of parenchyma, called

a nucellus;
And around it are two thin sheets of cells,
integuments, which almost covers the whole nucellus
and leaving only a small hole called micropyle.

MEIOSIS OF MEGASPOROCYTES

During meiosis, 3 of the 4 megaspores degenerate and only one

survives and becoming very large by absorbing the protoplasm of the
dead megaspores.

I
3 antipodal
Megasporocyte ->
Mega cells
- >
8 nuclei in I cell
2 polar nuclei ,
in I cell

I synergied cell

egg cell

(1) The technical term for a

multinucleate gametophyte is embryo ⑳ antipodal cells

amraan
sac.

(2) The nuclei migrate through the

cytoplasm, pulled by the microtubules,
until 3 nuclei lies at each end and 2 in
the center (binucleate). nuclei cells

(3) Walls then form around the nuclei,

making the 8 nucleate megaspore into
a 7 celled megagametophyte.
⑳
eggcell

synergids
FERTILIZATION

The syngamy of the sperm and egg involves:

PLASMOGAMY, the fusion of protoplasts; and

KARYOGAMY, the fusion of nuclei.

PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION

(1)The microspore lands on the stigma of the flower and grows its
pollen tube (vegetative cell) downwards through the style towards
the ovule.

(2)It is guided through the micropyle and penetrates the nucellus

where it reaches the egg apparatus (synergids & egg cell).

(3)It then enters on of the synergids where it bursts open,

releasing the both of the sperm cells, and migrates toward the egg
cell through the synergid’s protoplasm.

(4)As it does so, the sperm’s plasma membrane breaks down and
loses most of its protoplasm.

(5)The sperm nucleus then enters the egg and forms a diploid
zygote nucleus.

IN MOST PLANTS: CONIFERS:

The ovule carries both the The ovule carries the

mitochondrial and plastids mitochondria and a nucleus.
genes
The sperm carries the plastids
and a nucleus.

PROCESS OF ENDOSPERM FORMATION:

The remaining sperm cell from the pollen tube travels from the
synergid towards the central cell.

Where it undergoes karyogamy, with both the polar nuclei in

the central cell, and forms a triploid endosperm nucleus.
 The endosperm nucleus then undergoes a rapid mitotic division
with cell cycles lasting only a few hours.

The central cell expands without cell division but with the
initiation of a dynamic cytoplasm.

Leaving it as a singular cell with hundreds to thousands of nuclei.

A coconut “milk” can be accurately referred to

as the the central cell’s protoplasm

Where the coenocytic milk is converted to a

thick layer of cellular meat; and

The hollow center is the remnant of the central

cell

The whole process of zygote and endosperm formation is called

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION.

EMBRYO AND SEED DEVELOPMENT

The zygote grows into a small cluster of cells which becomes the
embryo proper and the other a short stalk called suspensor.

The cotyledons then grows to the other end, away from the suspensor.

This stage is called the heart stage because the cotyledon primordia
gives the embryo a heart shape.

In the torpedo stage, a short axis is established:

Radicle or the embryonic root.

Epicotyl or the embryonic stem.

Hypocotyl or the root/shoot junction.

 EXALBUMINOUS ALBUMINOUS

In most basal angiosperms In monocots, the cotyledons

and eudicots, the does not thickens and
cotyledons store the become full instead the
nutrients for the embryo endosperm remains.
instead of the endosperm.
Examples are rice, oat, and
This can be seen in beans,
corn where it is mostly
peas, peanuts, almonds,
pecans, and other seeds endosperm
where what we eat is
mostly cotyledons.

PARTS OF THE SEED

The embryo develops from the zygote; and

The endosperm from the megagametophyte central cell.

The seed coat or testa then propagates from the integuments.

FRUIT DEVELOPMENT
The matured ovary the plant is called a fruit.

!
Exocarp
Pericarp
I Mesocarp
Endo carp
 Cross pollination occurs when a flower is pollinated by a different individual
(other species).

Self-pollination happens when a flower is pollinated by itself or other plant of the

same species.

Self-fertilization is almost as the same as asexual reproduction and is

not recommended because it does not promote diversity.
Some flowers prevents this by having different
maturation times for their stamens and
carpels.

There is also a system called compatibility

barriers where chemical reactions between the
pollen and carpel prevent the growth of the pollen
tube.

(1) as the pollen tube grows the style and stigma tests various
proteins along the surface of the tube and if the protein matches
that of the incompatibility gene of the carpel-bearing plant,
then the flower rejects the further growth of the pollen tube.

(2) other system involves the anther which its outer surface
has been deposited critical proteins and any match along the
carpel will stop the fertilization process.

MONOECIOUS AND DIOECIOUS SPECIES

Stamens and Carpels are essential organs.

Petals and Sepals are nonesential organs.

DIOECIOUS MONOECIOUS

Produce individuals with only staminate or Produce individuals having staminate

carpellate flowers which means that the flowers and carpellate flowers all on
stamen and carpel is not formed in one the same plant.
plant.
ANIMAL-POLLINATED FLOWERS

Specific animals and plant underwent coevolution.

Flowers becoming more adapted to visitation.

Animals becoming more adapted to efficient exploitation of

the flower.

AGENTS OF DISPERSAL

Animals Zoochory

Attached to animal Epizochory

Eaten by animal Endozochory

Birds Ornithochory

Mammals Mammaliochory

Bats Chropterochory

Ants Myrmecochory

WIND-POLLINATED FLOWERS
Attracting pollinators is unnecessary, thus mutations
that prevent the formation of the perianth.

AGENTS OF DISPERSAL

Wind Anemochory

OTHERS:

Water Hydrochory

Dispersed by the plant itself Autochory

 OVARY POSITION

Superior / Hypogynous Half-inferior / Perigynous Inferior / Epigynous

INFLORESCENCE FLOWER

(a) DETERMINATE INFLORESCENCES have

limited potential growth.

Simple Determinate Compound Determinate Spike

⑧
8

8
⑧ ⑧
⑧ ⑧ ⑧
· - ⑧
--

·
⑧

in
(b) INDETERMINATE INFLORESCENCES have their lowest or
outermost flowers open first and new flowers still grows with the
presence of the old flowers.

Raceme Umbel Head

⑧
--
8

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A⑨
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⑱
⑧
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⑧ -
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--

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--

FRUITS
True fruit refers to fruits that contains ovarian tissue.

Accessory Fruit refers to fruits that contains

nonovarian tissues, e.g. petals, sepals, receptacle,
and stamen.
Fruits came prom a "mature plower"
PARTS :

!
Exocarp
Pericarp
I Mesocarp
Endo carp

FLESHY FRUITS whose MESOCARP SIMPLE OVARY is

is at least FLESHY at MATURITY. derived from a single
modified leaf, CARPEL
SIMPLE FLESHY FRUITS
develop from a flower with a COMPOUND OVARY is
SINGLE PISTIL. consists TWO OR
MORE CARPELS.

DRUPE
A single seed with a STONY
ENDOCARP.

Superior ovary with a single ovule. ALMOND & OLIVE

The mesocarp is not always
OBVIOUSLY FLESHY.

BERRY
From a COMPOUND OVARY with
MORE THAN A SINGLE SEED.

Entire pericarp is fleshy ; difficult to

distinguish the mesocarp and
endocarp.
TYPES:
TRUE BERRY
Thin skin with a soft pericarp.
AVOCADO, TOMATO,
GRAPES, PERSIMMONS,
Most contain MORE THAN ONE SEED.
PEPPER, & EGGPLANTS
(except AVOCADO).
 PEPOS
Berries with relatively thick rinds. PUMPKIN, CUCUMBERS,
WATERMELONS, SQUASH,
Cucurbitaceae “Pumpkin” Family. & CANTALOUPES

HESPERIDIUM
A berry with a LEATHERY SKIN containing OILS.
ORANGE, LEMONS,
Outgrowths from the inner lining of the ovary LIMES,
become SACLIKE and SWOLLEN with JUICE. &GRAPEFRUITS

Rutaceae “Citrus” Family

POME

The bulk of whose flesh comes from the

ENLARGED FLORAL TUBE or RECEPTACLE
that grows up AROUND THE OVARY.
APPLES & PEARS
The endocarp around the seeds is PAPERY
or LEATHERY.

DRY FRUITS
DEHISCENT FRUITS are dry fruits the SPLITS at
MATURITY.

FOLLICLE
Splits along ONE SIDE OF THE SEAM

LEGUMES
Splits along TWO SIDE OF THE SEAM.

SILIQUES
Splits along TWO SIDES ; but there exists a
CENTRAL PARTITION.

Brassicaceae “Mustard” Family

CAPSULE
Consists of at least two
carpels
 Some variations:
Along the partitions

Through the cavities(locules) in

the carpels

A cap that pops off

Seeds are shaken, by the wind,

from a row of pores

INDEHISCENT FRUITS are dry fruits that DO NOT SPLIT at

MATURITY

ACHENE
Only the base of the single seed is
attached to the surrounding pericarp.

The husk is easily separated from the

seed.

NUTS
One seeded fruits

The pericarp is larger, harder,

and thicker than achenes.

Develop with a CLUSTER OF

BRACTS

GRAIN / CARYOPSIS
The pericarp and the seed
is tightly united.

Poaceae “Grass” Family

SAMARA
The pericarp forms into a WING or
MEMBRANE which aids in dispersal

SCHIZOCARP
“Twin fruits”

Upon drying, the twin fruits BREAK

into TWO ONE-SEEDED SEGMENTS
called MERICARPS.

Apiaceae “Parsley” Family