PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

GUIDANCE

 Guidance is gotten from the word ‘guide’ which means to direct, help, steer. Guidance can
be explained as the process through which a guide or a trained personnel gives directions,
information, help to another person about how to do something in order to understand
him/herself as well as things around him/her better.
 Guidance can be defined as a process, developmental in nature, by which an individual is
assisted to understand, accept and use his/her abilities, aptitudes and interests in relation to
his/her aspirations.
 Guidance is concerned with provision and interpretation of information. It involves
personal help and advice given by someone and thus promotes self-direction and self-
growth.
 Guidance is the act of showing someone how to do something by taking them through a
process step by step.
 Guidance involves:
i. Listening
ii. Giving advice
iii. Instructing and directing clients
iv. Giving suggestions
v. Is short lived
vi. Providing of personal information for an immediate situation/solution
 Guidance simply shows or points the way to be followed. It is majorly concerned with
career development.
 Guidance functions in an institution may include:
i. Orientation or adaptive services- acquaintance to new environment, adjustment to
new environment, building sense of belonging to new setting, building support
groups (social guidance), general familiarization with new set up (rules and
regulations, classes and lecturers)
ii. Appraisal or inventory services- use of data collection (interview, observation),
keeping of student records, analysis of student (e.g. health status), realistic planning
of a satisfying educational set-up, helping students acquire and organize useful
information about him/herself, to know his/her strengths and weaknesses.
iii. Informational or distributive services-providing students with better knowledge of
educational, vocational and social opportunities to make decisions on career, higher
education etc.

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 iv. Planning and Placement services e.g. alumni:- help students make his/her future
plans, help students acquire admission into other environment.

Guidance is based upon the following principles.

a) Holistic development of individual: Guidance needs to be provided in the context of total
development of personality.

b) Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each individual is different from every
other individual. Each individual is the combination of characteristics which provides
uniqueness to each person. Similarly human beings have an immense potential. The
dignity of the individual is supreme.

c) Acceptance of individual needs: Guidance is based upon individual needs i.e. freedom,
respect, dignity.

d) The individual needs a continuous guidance process from early childhood throughout
adulthood.

e) Guidance involves using skills to communicate love, regard, respect for others.

COUNSELING

 Counselling can be defined as a complex process in which a trained professional utilizes

appropriate resources to assist in the client’s development according to mutually agreeable
guidelines.
 Counseling is an interactive process, co-joining the counselee, who is vulnerable and needs
assistance, and the counselor, who is trained and educated to give assistance.
 Counseling is concerned with the feelings, attitudes and emotional dispositions of an
individual about himself/herself and the situation facing him/her.
 Counseling assists individuals deal with overwhelming anxiety arising from personal,
social, academic or occupational problems.
 What counseling is not:
i. Is not a conversation
ii. Is not a discussion
iii. Is not an interrogation
iv. Is not a confession
v. Is not the giving of information
vi. Is not the giving of advice
vii. Is not about influencing attitudes, beliefs, behaviours
viii. Is not discipline
ix. Is not solving problems for others
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 x. Is not guidance

Aims of counseling
The aims of counseling are broad. They may depend on the situation and the environment, and on
training. The basic aims of counseling include the following:
1. To help clients and patients gain an insight into the origins and development of emotional
difficulties, leading to an increased capacity to take rational control over feelings and
actions.
2. To alter maladjusted behaviour.

3. To assist clients and patients to move in the direction of fulfilling their potential, or
achieve an integration of conflicting elements within themselves.

4. To provide clients and patients with the skills, awareness and knowledge, which will
enable them to confront social inadequacy.

In almost all situations, guidance must involve counseling and vice versa. Hence, due to the
interactive nature of the two, the word counseling is commonly used to include guidance.

WAYS IN WHICH THE COUNSELLING DIFFERS FROM GUIDANCE

BASIS FOR
GUIDANCE COUNSELING
COMPARISON
Meaning Guidance refers to an advice or a Counseling refers to a professional
relevant piece of information advice given by a counselor to an
provided by a superior, to resolve a individual to help him in overcoming
problem or overcome from difficulty. from personal or psychological
problems.

Nature Preventive Remedial and Curative

Approach Comprehensive and Extroverted In-depth and Introverted

What it does? It assists the person in choosing the It tends to change the perspective, to
best alternative. help him get the solution by himself or
herself.

Deals with Education and career related issues. Personal and socio-psychological issues.

Provided by Any person superior or expert A person who possesses high level of
skill and professional training.

Privacy Open and less private. Confidential

Mode One to one or one to many One to one

Decision making By guide. By the client.

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BASIS FOR
GUIDANCE COUNSELING
COMPARISON

Psychotherapy: This is a deeper, more fundamental or involving process of change with more
disturbed clients. Psychotherapy has been the term used in medical settings such as psychiatric
units (McLeod, 2005).

Counselor/psychologist: Acounselor or psychologist who is engaged in developing and

empowering others through counselor or psychology education.

Client/counselee: An individual who seeks counseling or psychological services, or is referred for

counseling or psychological service.

History of Guidance and Counselling

 The history of academy counseling formally started at the about face of the twentieth
century, although a case can be fabricated for archetype the foundations of counseling and
admonition attempt to age-old Greece and Rome with the abstract article of Plato and
Aristotle.
 There is additionally affirmation to altercate that some of the techniques and abilities of
modern-day admonition attorneys were accomplished by Catholic priests in the average
ages, as can be apparent by the adherence to the abstraction of acquaintance aural the
confessional.
 Near the end of the sixteenth century, one of the Aboriginal texts about career options
appeared: the Universal Plaza of All the Professions of the World, (1626) accounting by
Tomaso Garzoni quoted in Guez, W. & Allen, J. (2000). Nevertheless, bookish admonition
programs appliance specialized textbooks did not alpha until the about-face of the
twentieth century.

Guidance Movement in the Western World

The guidance movement was started with an emphasis on vocational information, planning and
guidance. Vocational education was believed to be that part of both organized and unorganized
methods of securing occupational confidence and experiences by individuals for achieving
occupational proficiency. Vocational planning was regarded as a process for helping students, or
others, to develop and accept an integrated and adequate picture of themselves, and of their roles
in the world of work, to test this concept against reality, and to accept its benefits with
satisfaction. The concept emanated from the fact that:

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 1. both human personalities and the economic order are in the process of continuous change
and development;
2. people differ in their potential and capacity for work, but can qualify for a number of
occupations;
3. each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities, interests and other personal
qualities;
4. there are variations among individuals with respect to the nature and tempo of
development through various stages;
5. the career pattern of an individual is influenced by parental and socio-economic factors as
well as unique patterns of abilities, interests and other personality characteristics;
6. vocational guidance is a long process extending through the school and working life.

USA

Guidance and counseling has its roots in the USA as vocational guidance, around the turn of the
20th century. It is an emerging, growing and continually changing concept and movement. In the
beginning of the movement, the focus was on the provision of occupational information. Later,
there was need for more objective methods of assessing individuals for different jobs. The
movement emerged as a natural consequence to the type of conditions existing at that time.
Conditions thought to have led to the rise of guidance as a movement or process are:

 division of labour
 growth of technology
 extension of vocational education
 Spread of modern forms of democracy.

The early 1900s were characterized by urbanization, immigration, industrialization and social and
cultural evolution. The guidance movement is traced to divergent major sources which are:

 Philanthropy (humanitarianism)
 Mental hygiene
 Social change
 Psychometrics

Guidance counseling dates back to as early as 1907, when Jesse Davis implemented the first
guidance counseling programme at Central High School in Detroit.

Frank Parsons is known as the Father of Vocational Guidance. He developed a framework to help
individuals decide on a career.

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Alfred Binet was the inventor of the first usable intelligence test known today as an IQ test.

Clifford Beers, the founder of has become the Mental Health Association.

Africa

 Prior to western influence, most African societies had various forms of social services that
were provided for young people and children, so that they could develop and grow into
responsible and productive members of their communities or ethnic groups.
 To function effectively in one’s community, one needed to be aware of the values, beliefs
and roles one had to play as a member of a particular regiment or sex.
 Many young boys and girls were socialized, or taught the ways of their communities, as
well as the various skills their forebears used to earn a living, or to provide for their
families. Initiation schools, for example, taught young people things they would need later
on in their adult lives. For instance, they would learn about the history of their ethnic
group, how to relate to each other as boys or girls, and how to behave as adults, as well as
know their responsibilities as parents or members of the community.
 The extended family provided other services that young people and children needed.
Uncles, aunts and other relations were sources of information that young people needed as
they grew up. For example, a boy talked to his uncle if he had questions.
 Skills in carving, hunting and other occupations needed later on in life were passed on to
young people by parents at different stages in the development of each child. Some of the
behavior and skills were learnt either by observing adults, or acquired through other means
of training.
 Every community had its culturally-based social services for young people and children.
Among these culturally-based social services was the extended family system, in which
relatives played a significant part in providing guidance and counseling for the young.
 The initiation schools/ceremonies introduced young people to the history of the ethnic
group, its customs and any other cultural activities that every member of the community
needed to know about, in order to live a successful life.
 Guidance and Counseling for individuals have always formed part of the African strategy
for combating personality problems and practiced by indigenous counselors.
 In the traditional African context, guidance involved educating the youth about the
traditions and culture of the community. Every event and occurrence was taken to provide
a lesson for all to learn e.g. initiation, marriage, death, rain making, planting and
harvesting, divination and sacrifices and times of natural catastrophes.

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  In traditional African societies, counsel was given in various forms, the most common of
which were giving advice and sharing wisdom. Giving advice has been a common way of
providing help for other people. The advice offered was frequently instrumental in helping
people to consider their future. In many instances, the extended family was the main
source of advice for family/clan members. There was usually no shortage of people willing
to share their wisdom with others. Therefore giving advice often promoted the dependence
of the young persons on the advice given which was largely subjective and did not
promote the personal development of young people. Wisdom generally refers to
experience and knowledge about life and using them judiciously. In African societies, it
was considered the responsibility of elders to provide wisdom or counsel to young boys
and girls. The wisdom provided by elderly men and women was part of the counseling
function of the family or society for boys and girls. Another aspect of wisdom is sharing
proverbs or folk stories. A well-known African proverb is, ‘When elephants fight, the
grass suffers.’ Folk stories about the ‘hare’ are also told in many parts of Africa.
 While some people argue that guidance has always been part of an African heritage, the
formalization and integration of guidance services into the education system only began in
the late fifties.
 The beginnings of guidance in some African countries can be dated back to the fifties in
countries such as Nigeria, which made great strides in the field. In other countries, such as
Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Swaziland, guidance services did not exist until the late
sixties.

Guidance and Counseling Movement in Kenya

In Kenya, guidance and counseling in schools dates back to 1970. The Ominde commission
suggested the establishment of guidance and counseling programmes in schools and colleges. The
following conditions in present day Kenya have created a need for guidance and counseling:
social problems, economic problems, educational problems, work problems, leisure problems and
the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Many societies have experienced a lot of social and economic changes.
The most outstanding changes are:

i. A gradual shift from the extended to the nuclear family, or single parent family-
homosexual family.
ii. Heavy reliance on a cash economy against a background of widespread poverty.
iii. Political demands and expectations.
iv. A rapid rate of urbanization against a very high unemployment rate.
v. Rate of illiteracy.
vi. High population growth rate.

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vii. Infiltration of elements from foreign cultures through mass media which have led to
general moral decay.
viii. Wars, political instability and epidemics leading to increased numbers of orphans and
refugees.

Guidance and Counseling needs related to Education

1. Personal and social issues: problems associated with personal characteristics such as
physical conditions or health status, intelligence level, degree of emotional control,
habitual attitudes, social interests, vocational interests, ambitions and cultural background.
Problems of sex and interpersonal relations-lack of proper and objective education may
lead to many misconceptions on sexual behaviour.
2. Educational issues: problems which are functional rather than organic. These include poor
motor skills, conceptual understanding and creative expression. Problems arising from
home conditions: unhygienic home environment. Parental attitudes and home situations
(frequent moving, too little or too much home duties, lack of home cooperation with
school or community, broken families, poverty). School experiences which bring about
difficulties in adjustment to learning experiences (lack of interest in school, too much or
too little teacher assistance, fear of failure). Facilitation of smooth transition from home to
school, from primary school to secondary school, from secondary to post-secondary
institutions or to work. Coping with examination anxiety. Development of effective study
habits.
3. Problems concerning future vocation: career and vocational choice, lack of access to
adequate and accurate information on occupations. Dealing with unemployment. Provision
of meaningful experiences thus enabling the student to relate the curriculum to
occupations. Assisting students make informed decisions about their educational paths-
choices to be made between subjects, curricula, schools and colleges. Availability of
schools and colleges, admission requirements and educational and work opportunities.

The Components of Guidance

 Guidance can be defined as a process, developmental in nature, by which an individual is

assisted to understand, accept and use his/her abilities, aptitudes and interests and
attitudinal patterns in relation to his/her aspirations.
 Guidance as an educational construct involves those experiences that assist each learner to
understand him/herself, accept him/herself, and live effectively in his/her society.

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  This is in addition to the learner’s experiences in the world of work and the people found
there.
 Guidance can also be looked at as a programme or services to individuals based upon the
need of each individual, an understanding of his/her immediate environment, the influence
of environmental factors on the individual and the unique features of each school.
 Guidance is designed to help each individual adjust to his/her environment, develop the
ability to set realistic goals for him/herself, and improve his/her education.
 As a process, guidance is not a simple matter, but involves a series of actions or
progressive steps which move towards a goal.
 As a service, we can isolate four major services, those of educational, vocational, personal
and social guidance.
1. Educational Guidance

 Guidance as an educational construct involves those experiences that assist each learner to
understand him/herself, accept him/herself and live effectively in his/her society.
 Educational guidance, in so far as it can be distinguished from any other form of guidance,
is concerned with the provision of assistance to pupils in their choices in, and adjustment
to, the curriculum and school life in general. Educational guidance is, therefore, essential
in the counselling service.
 Guiding young people to pursue the right type of education is necessary, while ensuring
that the right balance is kept in order to meet the human resource needs of a nation.
 This is a term was first coined by Truman Kelley in 1914 (Makinde, 1988). Educational
counseling is a process of rendering services to pupils who need assistance in making
decisions about important aspects of their education, such as the choice of courses and
studies, decisions regarding interests and ability, and choices of college and high school.
Educational counseling increases a pupil's knowledge of educational opportunities.
 Educational guidance is a process for helping an individual to plan a suitable educational
programme and make progress in it. The individual may be assisted, for example, in
choosing subjects, courses, schools, colleges, and school adjustment. The individual has to
be helped to know his/her present position in the educational system and see what lies
ahead. Girls and women, for example, need to be guided away from those educational
myths which contribute to the reluctance of females to pursue careers in technology,
mathematics, engineering, and most male-dominated occupations.

Some of the aims and objectives of educational guidance are:

 To assist the pupil to understand him/herself i.e. to understand his/her potentialities,
strength and limitations.

 To help the child make educational plans consist with his/her abilities, interests and goals.
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  To enable the student to know detail about the subject and courses offered.

 To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in various school/ college subjects.

 To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules, regulations, social life connected
with it.

 To help the child in developing good study habits.

 To help the child to participate in out of class educational activities in which he can
develop leadership and other social qualities.
The Importance of Educational Guidance

Educational guidance is important in schools and colleges in the following ways:

1. Educational guidance helps young people to pursue the right type of education. In this
way, the individual is motivated to maximize his/her contribution to society.
2. It assists individuals to make informed decisions about their education. Individuals have to
know the choices that have to be made, and determine whether the choice is between
subjects, curricula, schools or colleges. They have to know subject combinations or
options, what the subject involves in the classroom, available courses and where each
course leads, the available schools and colleges, admission requirements, and educational
opportunities.
3. It facilitates the smooth transition for children from home to school, from primary to
secondary school, from secondary to post-secondary educational institutions, and to the
world of work. The final transition from the educational system to the labour force appears
to be most important and challenging for students.
4. It helps students to cope with examination anxiety. The fear of failure and the craving for
the highest grades are major sources of pressure among students.
5. It helps students to develop effective study habits. The students are assisted to improve
their competence in reading, note-taking, and academic achievement.
6. It provides students with meaningful educational experiences. The students are able to
relate the curriculum to occupational groups.

Components of educational guidance

 The components of educational guidance include study skills, time-tabling, note-taking,

sitting for examinations, and academic counselling.
 Academic counselling - assisting a student to define and resolve his/her educational
problems, so that he/she becomes self-sufficient in exploring, choosing, and pursuing, an
educational programme.

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 2. Vocational Guidance

 Vocational guidance is a process for helping individuals to choose an occupation, prepare

for it, enter it and develop in it.
 Vocational happiness requires that a person’s interests, aptitudes and personality, be
suitable for his/her work. It plays its part by providing individuals with an understanding
of the world of work and essential human needs, and familiarizing individuals with such
terms as ‘the dignity of labour’ and ‘work value’.
Some of the aims and objectives of vocational guidance are:
 Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to fit them into general
requirements of the occupation under consideration.

 Helping the individual to develop an attitude towards work that will dignify whatever type
of occupation he/she may wish to enter.

 Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of occupations and to learn a
technique for analyzing information about vocations.

 Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the facilities offered by various
educational institutions engaging in vocational training.
 At the elementary stage, although no formal guidance programmes are needed, the
orientation to vocation can be initiated at this stage. At this stage some qualities and skills
which have grater vocational significance viz. love and respect for manual work (ii)
training in use of hands (iii) spirit of cooperative work (iii) sharing (vi) appreciation for all
works (vii) good interpersonal relationship are to be developed.
The Functions of Vocational Guidance

Among the functions of vocational guidance are the following:

1. Aid in placing talent where it is needed. The student is assisted to make the best possible
vocational choice.
2. Strengthen the educational system by providing motivation and meaning to education. This
means ensuring that the students’ education, curricula and extra-curricular activities are
useful, and will eventually result in something worthwhile. The students are encouraged to
make maximum use of all educational opportunities, since these will be beneficial to them
during their lives.
3. Add a feeling of security to the nation, the schools, and the student, so that all face the
future with confidence. The student is helped to develop an ability to control his/her future.
4. Provide information about occupational opportunities. Students become aware of the world
of work, and the range of available opportunities that exist.
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 5. Encourage students in decision-making. Decisions on what type of life a student would
like to lead depend on his/her interests, values, abilities, skills, and motivation to learn.
6. Assist students to know themselves and their environment. Each student is helped to
understand him/herself in terms of interests, potential skills, and abilities, in relation to the
world of work.
7. Help students to deal with a variety of problems. Since the society in which students live is
constantly changing, they have to adjust to change. For example, more emphasis is now
given to self-employment and job generation than in earlier years.
8. Help students to understand the problems of unemployment and its causes.
9. Assist students to understand the process of making choices, and of the possible
consequences of their decisions.
10. Enable students to acquire acknowledge of the practical procedures needed for getting a
job and progressing in it.
The Components of Vocational Guidance

The main components of vocational guidance include the following:

1. Analysis of the student: Self-appraisal of the student is a necessity. The student should
have extensive knowledge about him/herself and match this information with such things
as home background, school progress, work experience, personality, health, values,
interests, aptitudes and achievement. The counsellor should assist the student to collect,
analyze and use a variety of objective and subjective, psychological and social data about
him/herself, so that he/she gains a better understanding of him/herself. The counsellor can
administer interest and aptitude tests and provide occupational information.
2. Occupational information: Occupational information is the publication and dissemination
of facts on the nature and prospects for employment in different occupations. The data
derived from self-appraisal enable the student to search for an occupation. For the student
to have an intelligent match between him/herself and jobs, he/she needs knowledge of the
occupational, industrial, and labour structure of the country, classifications of occupations,
occupational requirements, entrance procedures, occupational distribution, training
opportunities, and employment prospects, and occupational hazards. Self-employment is
critical in an age when there are fewer jobs than the number of job seekers. Students need
to be guided in assessing the resources around them, and exploring ways of making new
products, and finding new sources of livelihood. In this regard, linkages between the
guidance counsellor and science and technology should prove productive.
3. Consultation: The counsellor should give technical assistance to teachers, administrators
and parents, and help them to be more effective. Personnel from a variety of occupations
(e.g., medical, industrial), could be invited to speak to students.

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 4. Vocational counseling: The major objective of vocational counselling is to assist the
student to integrate the information about him/herself and the occupational world, and to
develop a plan for career development. This involves a face-to-face encounter between a
counselor and a client. The student is assisted before any occupational selection is made,
admeasures are taken to meet occupational requirements. The student must possess an
understanding and acceptance of her/his personality, interests, aptitudes, and background.
5. Placement: This is a co-operative enterprise which involves the services of the school,
community and the student. The term ‘placement’ refers to helping the student obtain part-
time or full-time employment. The term also includes giving the student work experience,
and placing him/her in an appropriate vocational training institution. It involves record-
keeping, vocational counselling, employment contacts, supervision, and follow-up.
6. Community Occupational Surveys and Follow-up Studies: The counsellor must conduct
Community Occupational Surveys and Follow-up Studies of school-leavers, and procure
data on local training and employment conditions, labour turn-over, and job opportunities.
Such surveys should be conducted because the majority of workers find employment in
their immediate environment or community. Follow-up studies on graduates should be
made.
7. Evaluation: The counsellor should determine the impact of the vocational guidance
programming students, schools, and society, and find out how any deficiencies in
theprogramme can be removed.

The Principles of Vocational Guidance

The provision of an effective vocational guidance service is based on the following principles:
1. Vocational guidance is concerned primarily with the personal development of the
individual.
2. Human beings have a capacity for self-development, which is best encouraged through
active involvement in the exercise.
3. The primary way in which guidance is conducted lies through individual behaviour.
4. Guidance is oriented towards co-operation, rather than compulsion, between the client and
the counsellor. In other words, it is an activity based on mutual consent and trust.
5. Guidance is based on recognizing the dignity and worth of individuals as well as their right
to choose.
6. Guidance is a continuous educational process.
7. Guidance demands that the counsellor should not be emotionally involved.

3. Occupational Information in Guidance

The dissemination of occupational information in guidance is carried out in the following ways:
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 1. General group guidance: The counsellor collects information and makes it available to
groups of students. The students also collect information on various occupations for
themselves.
2. Teaching of occupations: The counsellor meets a class and teaches them about different
occupations.
3. Career day/week activities: Lectures on different careers, career demonstrations, debates,
and film shows, are provided by the school.
4. Trips and excursions to industrial establishments: Students go out of school/college to
workplaces, to see things for themselves.
5. Career clubs: The clubs can show films relating to careers, organize career quizzes,
competitions, career conferences, dramas, and invite lecturers/employers to provide
information on various careers.
6. Vacation jobs and work-study: The school can assist students to obtain vacation jobs
during the long vacation or provide work-study programmes.
7. Bulletin boards: The school can display vocational, educational, and social information, on
bulletin boards.
8. School subjects: Teachers can relate their teaching of subjects to careers for which they are
useful or applicable.

Kinds of Occupational Information Which Students Should Know

1. Employment prospects: Are the employment prospects for this occupation expanding or
diminishing?
2. Nature of Work: What are the pleasant or unpleasant things workers have to do? What
tools, equipment, or materials, are used? What are the hours of work? Are there any shifts?
3. Work Environment: Is it hot, cold, humid, dry, wet, dirty, noisy, etc.?
4. Qualifications: What are the academic and/or physical qualifications?
5. Aptitudes: What is the I.Q. and other special aptitudes needed?
6. Interests: What are the interests of people who succeed in this particular occupation?
7. Legal and professional: Is a license or certificate required?
8. Preparation: What kind of education and training is needed?
9. Entrance: Is it by examination, by application and interview, or by capital investment?
10. Likes or dislikes: What are the likes and dislikes of the job?
11. Advancement: What proportion of workers advance? And to what positions?
12. Earnings: What are the earnings per month and year? How are wages paid?

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THEORIES OF VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Implications of the Theories of Vocational Development

1. Ginzberg, Axelrad and Therma Theory
In Ginzberg's theory, the central idea is that vocational choice is a process which extends from late
childhood to the end of adolescence. Nevertheless, it has been extended to be lifelong. The theory
gives some guidelines as to how an individual develops, and may explore, crystallize, specify, and
achieve, goals at different stages of his/her life. Thus, the counselor notes the stages of
development and helps the individual to achieve his/her goals.

According to the theory, a career is a long-term process. That requires education, vision, values,
goals, skills, and interests. Due to this, Ginzberg also mentions that vocational choices of
individuals are divided into 3 stages namely:
1. Childhood or infancy
2. Adolescence
3. Adulthood or maturity

Stage one – Childhood (2 to 11 years)

In this first stage, the child does a playful imitation. He role-plays and mimics many roles.
Similarly, the roles include fire-fighter, policeman, doctor, racer, and many more. According to
Ginzberg, children evolve from playful reproduction. In addition, they work simulation near the
end of this stage.

Stage two – Adolescence (11-17 years)

In this second stage, kids start to become aware of their surroundings. Which help them start
developing skills, abilities, and talents. Apart from that, they are characterized by their interests
and values. This stage is characterized by four main points
• Interest: Their fondness and dislikes.
• Capacity: The things they are better at. Compared to the ones at which they aren’t.
• Value: What’s important to them and what’s not?
• Changeover: The person takes for granted, his responsibilities, for his own dealings.

Stage Three – Adulthood (Above 17 years)

In this last stage, the actual career begins to appear apparently. The kid becomes aware of college
life and different paths. Firstly, they begin to recognize vocation alternatives. Secondly, they make
backup plans in case the original does not work. Thirdly and lastly, this Stage is characterized by
three sub stages that are listed below:

 Exploration stage: In this first part, the individual decides his trail. But remains untied to
other choices.

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  Crystallization: In this second part, the individual becomes dedicated to one option.
Alongside, he focuses on other options.
 Specification: In this last part, the individual build-up fondness. Similarly, he takes precise
interest for part of the profession.From this theory, Ginzberg drew out the following
conclusions:

a. The process of career choice is limited to adolescence and adulthood stage.

b. Due to crisis and many other reasons, people change their occupation.
c. After retirement, their occupation changes.

This theory is also known as Developmental Theory. After this theory published. Many new and
improved theories were proposed by various scientists. But, the vocational theory still serves as
the base theory for career progress.

Factors Influencing Vocational Choice

The choices of individual that influence vocational choices are as follows:

1. Diverse life responsibilities: Every person has to play different responsibilities at home and
office. He decides and chooses the best role which is more significant to him.
2. Traits and interests: Every person is unique in his own way. Therefore, every aspect of
personal life is different from others.
3. Cultural Background: The principles and the regional area also affect the personal choice for
work preferences. The surrounding and the people around us also affect our choices of work.
4. Economic and social circumstances: It’s natural that our choices get affected according to
economic and social circumstances. The social and economic life plays an important role in
changing your choices.
5. Financial stability: Money is one of the main reasons for some to change future choices. You
make the correct and reasonable choices. You finalize your choices according to your financial
status.
6. Career guidance: Some individuals do not receive proper career guidance which causes them
to choose the wrong one. That leads them to a non-inspirational and boring career choice.

2. Super’s Self-Image Theory

In Super's theory, defining a vocational preference means making an occupational choice
consistent with one's image of oneself. Therefore, the counselor is no longer an expert in the
accurate assessment of vocational choice. The counselor is rather the person who helps the
individual to discover who he/she is, and what he/she can become.
Donald Super Developmental self-concept

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Donald Super’s career model is based on the belief that self-concept changes over time
and develops as a result of experience.

One of Donald Super’s greatest contributions to career development has been his emphasis
on the importance of the development of self-concept. According to Super, self-concept
changes over time and develops as a result of experience. As such, career development is
lifelong.

Super’s five life and career development stages

Super developed the theories and work of colleague Eli Ginzberg. Super felt that
Ginzberg’s work had weaknesses, which he wanted to address. Super extended
Ginzberg’s work on life and career development stages from three to five, and included
different sub-stages.

Stage 1: Growth Age 0–14 Characteristics: Development of self-concept,

attitudes, needs and general world of work

Stage 2: Exploration Age 15–24 Characteristics: “Trying out” through classes,

work experience, hobbies. Tentative choice
and skill development

Stage 3: Age 25–44 Characteristics: Entry-level skill building and

Establishment stabilisation through work experience

Stage 4: Maintenance Age 45-64 Characteristics: Continual adjustment process to

improve position

Stage 5: Decline Age 65+ Characteristics: Reduced output, prepare for retirement

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Developmental tasks at these different stages

Early adulthood Middle adulthood

Life stage Adolescence 14-25 Late adulthood 65+
25-45 45-65
Giving less time to Reducing sports Focusing on Reducing working
Decline
hobbies participation essentials hours

Holding one's own Keeping what one

Maintenance Verifying current Making
against competition enjoys
occupational choice occupational
position secure

EstablishmentGetting started in a Settling down in a Developing new Doing things one has
chosen field suitable position skills wanted to do

Exploration Learning more Finding desired Identifying new Finding a good

about opportunities opportunity tasks to work on retirement place

Growth Developing a Learning to relate Accepting one's Developing and

realistic self- to others own limitations valuing non-
concept occupational roles

3. Holland’s Theory
In Holland's theory, individuals and occupations are categorized according to the same scale of
attributes. Vocational choice consists of choosing an environment which corresponds to one of
the defined personality patterns emerging from the scale. Therefore, the counselor's role is to
help the individual make the best use of his/her skills, express his/her values, and take on roles
which are gratifying.

Holland’s theory is centred on the notion that most people fit into one of six personality types:

 Realistic
 Investigative
 Artistic
 Social
 Enterprising
 Conventional.

18
Realistic

Subjects you could

Description of Some occupations with
Some key skills study to give you
interest area Realistic components
the skills
Using and operating tools,
Likes to work mainly English, Maths,
equipment and machinery, Pilot, farmer,
with hands, making, Science, Workshop,
designing, building, horticulturalist, builder,
fixing, assembling or Technology,
repairing, maintaining, engineer, armed services
building things, using Computing,
working manually, personnel, mechanic,
and operating Business Studies,
measuring, working in upholsterer, electrician,
equipment, tools or Agriculture,
detail, driving, moving, computer technologist,
machines. Often likes Horticulture,
caring for animals, park ranger, sportsperson
to work outdoors Physical Education
working with plants

Investigative

Subjects you
Description of Some occupations with could study to
Some key skills
interest area Investigative components give you the
skills
Thinking analytically and Science, research, medical
Likes to discover and
logically, computing, and health occupations, English,
research ideas,
communicating by writing chemist, marine scientist, Maths,
observe, investigate
and speaking, designing, forestry technician, medical Science,
and experiment, ask
formulating, calculating, or agricultural laboratory Computing,
questions and solve
diagnosing, experimenting, technician, zoologist, Technology
problems
investigating dentist, doctor

Artistic

Subjects you could

Description of interest Some occupations with
Some key skills study to give you
area Artistic components
the skills
Artist, illustrator,
Expressing artistically
Likes to use words, art, photographer, signwriter, English, Social
or physically, speaking,
music or drama to composer, singer, Studies, Music,
writing, singing,
communicate, perform, instrument player, dancer, Drama, Art, Graphic
performing, designing,
or express themselves, actor, reporter, writer, Design, Computing,
presenting, planning,
create and design editor, advertiser, Business Studies,
composing, playing,
things hairdresser, fashion Languages
dancing
designer

19
Social

Some occupations Subjects you could

Description of interest
Some key skills with Social study to give you
area
components the skills
Likes to work with Communicating orally or inTeacher, nurse, nurse English, Social
people to teach, train writing, caring and aide, counsellor, Studies, Maths,
and inform, help, treat, supporting, training, police officer, social Science, Health,
heal and cure, serve and meeting, greeting, worker, salesperson, Physical Education,
greet, concerned for the assisting, teaching, customer service Art, Computing,
wellbeing and welfare informing, interviewing, officer, waiter, Business Studies,
of others coaching secretary Languages

Enterprising

Some occupations
Description of Subjects you could study
Some key skills with Enterprising
interest area to give you the skills
components
Salesperson,
English, Maths, Business
Likes meeting Selling, promoting and lawyer, politician,
Studies, Accounting,
people, leading, persuading, developing accountant,
Economics, Social
talking to and ideas, public speaking, business owner,
Studies, Drama,
influencing others, managing, organising, executive or
Computing, Text
encouraging others, leading and captaining, manager, travel
Information Management,
working in business computing, planning agent, music or
Languages
sports promoter

Conventional

Some occupations Subjects you could

Description of interest
Some key skills with Conventional study to give you the
area
components skills
Likes working indoors
Computing and keyboarding, English, Maths,
and at tasks that involve Secretary,
recording and keeping Business Studies,
organising and being receptionist, office
records, paying attention to Accounting,
accurate, following worker, librarian,
detail, meeting and greeting, Economics,
procedures, working bank clerk, computer
doing calculations, handling Computing, Text
with data or numbers, operator, stores and
money, organising, arranging, Information
planning work and dispatch clerk
working independently Management
events

20
 Holland asserts that people of the same personality type working together in a job create an
environment that fits and rewards their type.

Within this theory there are six basic types of work environment, which correlate directly to the
personality types. Holland emphasizes that people who choose to work in an environment similar
to their personality type are more likely to be successful and satisfied. This idea is important as it
shows Holland’s theory can be flexible, incorporating combination types.

Holland’s theory takes a problem-solving and cognitive approach to career planning. His model
has been very influential in career counselling. It has been employed through popular assessment
tools such as the Self-Directed Search, Vocational Preference Inventory and the Strong Interest
Inventory

4. Personal and Social Guidance

 Personal and social guidance is the process of helping an individual to know how to
behave with consideration towards other people. Primarily, personal and social guidance
helps the individual to understand himself, know how to get on with others, learn
manners and etiquette pursue leisure time activities, practice social skills, develop family
and family relationships, and understand social roles and responsibilities.
 In the course of their development, individuals encounter a lot of problems. These
problems include emotional conflicts, anxieties, frustrations, fears, poor self-image,
indecision, alcohol and drug abuse, unwanted pregnancies, the AIDS epidemic,
delinquency, suicide, inability to set a goal in life, poor interpersonal relationships,
dependence on other people and, in general, an inability to change unsuitable behaviour.
 Social relationships constitute a problem area for most of the students.
School/educational institution is a miniature society and pupil from different socio-
economic status, linguistic and socio-cultural background read there. Students some time
may face problems in adjustment and social relationship. It is very important that the
students to be helped in acquiring in feeling of security and being accepted by the group;
in developing social relationship and in becoming tolerant towards others. This is the task

21
 of social guidance. Formally social guidance can be given by educational institutions
whereas informal guidance may be provided by Family, religious institutions, Media etc.

The aims and objectives of personal and social guidance are:

 To assist the individual in understanding himself/herself.
 To assist the individual involving the personal problems.
 To assist the individual in taking independent decisions and judgment.
 To assist the individual to view the world and the social environment in right perspective.
 To assist the individual in making sound adjustments to different problems confronted in
life.

Vocational Guidance

 The individual student spends only a small portion of his time i.e. 4 to 6 hours per day in
school. The rest of the time needs to be effectively managed and utilized by the child for
his/her progress and development.
 Vocational guidance helps the child to judiciously utilize the leisure time. The other co-
curricular activities play an important role in all-round development of the child .But
many parents; teachers and children put secondary importance to these activities. The
students need to be properly guided for effective participation in varied types of
vocational pursuits so that they are able to shape their interpersonal behavior in desirable
direction and widen their outlook.

Personal/Social Counseling
Personal counseling deals with emotional distress and behavioral difficulties, which arises when
individuals struggle to deal with developmental stages and tasks. Any aspect of development can
be turned into an adjustment problem, and it is inevitable like lingering anger over an
interpersonal conflict, insecurities about getting older, depressive feelings when bored with
work, excessive guilt about a serious mistake, lack of assertion and confidence, grief over the
loss of a loved one and disillusionment and loneliness after parents' divorce.

22
Vocational Counseling
Vocational counseling is defined as individual contacts with those counseled, in order to
facilitate career development. This definition and category encompasses counseling situations
such as:
1. Helping students become aware of the many occupations
2. Interpreting an occupational interest inventory to a student

3. Assisting a teenager to decide what to do after school

4. Helping a student apply to a college or university

5. Role-playing a job interview in preparation for the real thing

The role of the teacher in guidance and counseling

 to monitor the academic progress of students studying in the institution;
 to acquaint the students with the prescribed curriculum;
 to identify the academically gifted, backward, creative and other category of special
learners;
 to cater to the educational needs of special learners
 to assist students in getting information about further education and vocation. Teachers
as Shapers of Students’ Future (formal and informal career counselor)
 Creation of a conducive learning environment for all students
 Motivating students and encouraging positive behaviour as well as behavior modification
 Mentorship of students
 Role Models and Sources of Inspiration for Students
 Encouraging a health teacher-learner relationship
 Identification of students in crisis and in need
 Teachers as Bridges Connecting Parents and Schools

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Non-verbal clues that would indicate to you that a student is interested or uninterested in a
conversation with a teacher.

i. Tone of voice e.g if week may mean you are hesistant and not sure of what you are
saying .if strong could convey confidence in what you are saying

ii. Rate of speech. The speed at which words flow out of your mouth will also convey
message.e.g hurried response fro student may mean being in a hurry to leave

iii. Loudness of voice . may be loud,medium or low. Loudness may be interpreted or

associated with anger, softness may mean not sure .

iv. Distance kept. decreasing or increasing when conversing with teacher. Will convey
message

v. Eye contact: important in regulating relationship. It tells what’s happening in the

conversation

vi. Facial expression. E,g sliming ,lip biting, a wrinkled forehead convey message

vii. Repetitive behaviour, including tapping of feet, drumming or thumping of fingers,

fidgeting while sitting playing with buttons on a shirt.

viii. Self-pain inflicting behaviour: include nail biting, cracking knuckles, tugging at hair
can all be signs of nervousness or inattentiveness

ix. Arrangement of the physical setting, seat taken by student during the conversation

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THE COUNSELING PROCESS
Types of counseling
 Individual counseling
 Group counseling
 Marital counseling
 Grief counseling
 Family counseling
 Adolescent counseling
 Addiction counseling

Dimensions of Counseling

1. Curative: Healing; restore back to good health

2. Preventive: to forestall any future breakdowns or maladjustment
3. Reconciliation: reconcile with self and others
4. Sustaining: coping and adapting

Main stages of the counseling process

1st Stage: Initial Disclosure - Relationship Building: The first step involves building a
relationship and focuses on engaging clients to explore issue at hand. Three important conditions
for establishment of effective counselor client relationship- empathy, genuine, and unconditional
caring

2nd stage: In-depth Exploration - Problem Assessment. This step involves the collection and
classification of information about the client’s life situation, assess through identifying data,
problem manifestation, events leading to the problem, length of problem, how client has coped
etc

3rd stage: Commitment to action - Goal Setting. Setting goals based on the problem assessed
in two above. It involves making a commitment to a set of conditions, to a course of action or an
outcome.
Step 4: Counseling Intervention. Based on the approach counselor has chosen. Look out for
tangible intervention on the problem diagnosed in stage 2

Step 5: Evaluation, Termination or Referral Terminating the counseling process will have to
be conducted with sensitivity with the client knowing that it will have to end.

Step 6: follow up. Suggest changes which may assist the client, reinforce positive behavior, and
correct any maladaptive behavior before it gets to problem for the client

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THEORIES OF COUNSELING
Definition.
A THEORY
• It is a concept that gives us an insight to understand and support our practice in
counseling
• It is an attempt to organize and integrate knowledge and to answer the why question.
• It is a complete and coherent characterization of a well-articulated domain of
investigation that provides a set of interrelated principles that is put forward as an
explanation of known facts and empirical data.

Importance of a Theory.
• Theory is the bedrock of good counseling
• Theory has an impact on how client problems are conceptualized.
• Theory helps to explain what happens in a counseling relationship.
• Theory helps to predict, evaluate and improve results of counseling.
• Theory provides framework for making scientific observation about counseling.

Classifications of Theories of Psychological Counseling

Four Approaches
• Psychoanalytic
• Cognitive-behavioral
• Humanistic –Existential
• Family systems

Psychoanalytic theories
 Sigmund Freud
 Adlerian- Alfred Adler
 Analytic – Carl Jung
 Object-relations

26
 Criteria Deterministic
 Biological instincts
 Early childhood experiences
 Unconscious
 Intra-psychic energies

Cognitive-behavioral theoris
• Behavioral
• Rationale emotive – Albert Elis
• Reality therapy/Control (CT/RT)
• Transactional analysis
criteria
• - All behavior is caused by the environment (stimuli).
• - Behavior is learnt and unlearnt
• - Reinforcement maintains behavior

Humanistic –Existential theories

• Person-centered theory
• Gestalt theory
• Existential theory
Criteria
• Self –concept comprises the individual perception
• The phenomenal field is the individual’s reality
Family Systems theories
• Structural family approach
• Validation process
• Trans-generational
• Family of origin
- System Vs Unit
- Linear Vs Circular

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 - Process Vs Content

Classification of counseling theories

The Psychoanalytic Approach.
Definition:
Psychoanalysis
This is the theory of human behavior and related therapy developed by Freud in the
1890’s. Its main purpose is to help clients gain insight by recognizing and understanding
the unconscious emotions and thoughts which are believed to cause their problems.

View of Human Nature

• The Freudian view of human nature is basically deterministic, i.e
• People’s behaviour is determined by irrational forces
• unconscious motivation,
• biological and instinctual drives and
• Certain psychosexual events during the first six year of life.

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
A basic assumption that sex and Aggressive drives are determinants of behavior.
He referred to them as instincts.
a) Life Instincts (Eros) sex drive.
 They serve the purpose of the survival of the individual and human race.
 They are oriented towards growth development and creativity
 They are oriented towards gaining pleasure and avoiding pain
 It is a source of motivation.
b) Death instincts (Thanatos)
 They accounted for aggressive drive. Driving man to self destruction, hatred, death,
hurting themselves and others.
 An assumption that the client’s difficulties have their ultimate origins in childhood
experience 0-6 years.

28
  An assumption that we behave the way we behave because of the unconscious process
in our life.

Consciousness and the Unconscious

The role of the unconscious is a fundamental concept of psychoanalysis theory.
 Through hypnosis, Freud came to see that many of his client’s problems were the result
of mental processes which were hidden to them.
 He was interested to show that the mind is not in fact always clear to itself, and that there
are many inaccessible memories, wishes and impulses which are often unacceptable to a
person’s consciousness.
 Freud came up with a description of the human mind which had three dimensions
 Pre-conscious – is that area containing thoughts and ideas which are available to recall.
 Unconscious – Where feelings, thoughts and ideas are repressed and therefore
unavailable to recall in the ordinary sense.
 Conscious – is a thin slice of the total mind we need to bring what is in the unconscious
to the conscious.

THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

• Freud came to believe that human personality is made up of three connecting systems.
The ID, EGO and SUPEREGO.
• These three areas of personality constantly interact with one another as a means of
regulating an individual’s behaviour.
• 1. ID – Biological Component
• 2. THE EGO - Psychological Component
• 3. THE SUPEREGO - Moral component

ID
• It is referred as the Pleasure seeking principle.
• It is the most primitive part of the system,
• is present from birth.
• It has no contact with reality it is all unconscious.

29
• The ID is the primary source of psychic energy.
• It is where the instinctual drives are found.
• It lacks organization. It is blind.
• It is demanding and insistent.
• It is illogical,
• spoiled brat of personality,
• It is immoral it does not think just acts seeks immediate gratification.
• Aims: at reducing tension, avoiding pain, gaining pleasure

THE EGO
• Ego develops to help children deal with the demands and constraints of reality.
• It is the portion of the ID which has undergone a special development or modification
through the influence of the external world. It is the executive arm of the individual and
it works under reality principle.
• It governs controls and regulates the personality.
• It exercises censorship.
• It is realistic and engages in logical thinking and formulates plans of actions for satisfying
needs.
• It reasons, deals with problem solving and decision making.

THE SUPEREGO
• Develops by about three years of age.
• It is the judicial branch of personality.
• It deals with what action is right or wrong.
• It strives for perfection.
• It represents the moral values and society which are handed down from parents to
children.
• It functions to inhibit the ID impulses to persuade the Ego to substitute moralistic goals
for realistic ones.

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EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Ego Defense mechanism are strategies which people use in order to cope with intra-psychic
conflict and to reduce anxiety. They are helpful so long as they do not become the way of living.
Defense mechanisms distort reality in order to cope.
Examples
1. Repression – Is a process whereby painful or traumatic experiences are forgotten or pushed
out of consciousness. Repressed material does not go away however but continues to exist
in the unconscious.

2. Denial – Is when we deny or distort reality. When reality is unpleasant or disturbing in

some way. e.g. bereaved people, terminal illness etc.
3. Rationalization – Is a process of inventing good, but false, reasons to explain our actions
or behavior. Falling an interview in turn you say after all I didn’t have time for that
job or course.
4. Projection – Consists of ascribing one’s own desires and unacceptable impulses to other
people. e.g. a father falling in love with a daughter and blames the daughter for it.
. Displacement – This is shifting blame or emotions to a safer object because the real target is
seen as too threatening to confront eg when annoyed you kick the cat etc.
6. Reaction formation – Is a way of concealing real feelings which people consider to be
unacceptable. e.g. (anxiety producing impulse replaced in its conscious by its opposite e.g.
Hate replaced by love.
7. Introjections – This is the process of taking in the views and altitudes expressed by other
people wholesome.
8. Regression – A process of reverting to an earlier and more childlike pattern of behavior
e.g. thumbs sucking bed wetting.
9. Humor – some people use humor as a shield or barrier against painful experience and
trauma e.g. comedians

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 10. Ritual and undoing – A process whereby you do things to undo the unjust you did to the
person e.g. you were not a good mother then when you realized you start compensating for
the list time to undo the hurt.
11. Sublimation – It occurs when instinctual drives are redirected into creative or other
acceptable expressions e.g. sports.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

During the 1880’s while working in his medical practice, Freud became interested in the number
of patients. Whose symptoms seemed to be traceable to childhood traumas involving sexual
abuse. From the experience of working with these patients he described what he regarded as the
psychosexual stages of development from infancy to adolescence.

THE ORAL STAGE: (0-1YEARS)

• The oral stage begins at birth up to one year.
• The mouth is the centre of pleasure the pleasure derived according to Freud is described
as sexual.
• There are two phases in this stage.
• The first is the sucking phase when only fluids are taken.
• Second is the biting phase which is linked to weaning and eating.
• Weaning can be traumatic for babies especially if it is introduced abruptly and without
Sensitivity to emotional needs.

THE ANAL STAGE (1-3 YEAR)

• Oral Fixation – when the child is weaned too early they will tend to go for the bottle.
When a child’s weaning is delayed may retain an intense attachment to the bottle, the
breast or other forms of oral gratification drinking, chewing, eating etc
• This is the second important stage of a child’s development.
• The ego is beginning to emerge, and the reality principle is replacing the Id.
• Toilet training starts,Conflicts arise between the wishes of parents and the impulses of the
child.
• The child finds pleasure in withholding and expelling faeces.

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• Attitudes to cleanliness and order are fostered at this stage.
• The approval and praise of the parent has a significant role in the child.
• Fixation in the Anal will lead to overly possessive, tidy, hording obstinate and mean
(anal retentive) others may be untidy, impulsive and generous (anal expulsive)

THE PHALLIC STAGE: (3-6YEARS)

• During this stage the child’s interests become focused on the genital area as a source of
pleasure.
• In this stage boys becomes interested with their mothers and girls their fathers.
• This feeling can cause anxiety therefore the boy will try to identify with the father to
avoid punishment, the girl will identify with the mother to avoid punishment.
• There is “penis envy” by the girls blaming the mothers for not having a penis.
• There is “vagina envy” by boys
• Penis symbolizes potency, authority and power.
Fixation in the phallic - results to difficulty in maintaining intimate relationships

Negotiating the stage

Male phallic stage
Oedipus complex
 Boy fells for mother
 Feels antagonistic toward father
 Fears father might punish him for his over for mother
 Boy develops fears related to his penis ie castration anxiety
 Reality is emphasized when the boy realizes the girl has no penis
Because of fear he “represses” this need for mother and “identifies’ with father i.e. if you
cannot beat him join him (obtains vicarious satisfaction

Female Phallic Stage

Electra complex

• Developed negative feelings toward mother (absence of penis)

33
 • Loves the father
• When she realizes she cannot defeat mother for fathers love she identifies
with her by taking on her characteristics

THE LATENCY STAGE (6-12 YEARS)

• During this period sexual feelings tend to lie dormant.
• The child’s attention is focused on education, hobbies, friendship and sports.
• The structure of personality has been formed id, ego and superego.
• During, latency the child’s energies are directed towards the development of social and
intellectual skills and to the enjoyment of recreational activities.
• They form friendships with members of the same sex.
• Fixation in Latency Stage leads to- Feelings of inadequacy relating to learning.
Feelings of inferiority in establishing social relationships. Conflicts over values, Lack of
initiative, dependency

THE GENITAL STAGE (12 – 18 YRS)

• At this stage of development, sexual interests begin to re-emerge.
• Hormone levels altered and body changes take place.
• Adolescents work towards their own adult roles and responsibilities.
• The harmony between id, Ego and superego is disrupted as the sexual impulses of the Id
start dominate and make demands.
• They form relationship with opposite sex with a view to lasting commitment and
marriage or some experiment.
• NB/ The genital stage continues into adult life and the happiness and fulfillment which
the individual can ultimately achieve is according to Freud, directly related to the
successful resolution of conflict at earlier stages of development.

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THERAPEUTIC GOALS IN PSFYCHOANALYSIS
• To make the unconscious conscious.
• To strengthen the Ego so that behavior is based on reality and less on defense
mechanism.
• Deeper probing of childhood experiences so that they can discussed, interpreted and
analyzed.
TECHNIQUES IN PSYCHOANALYSIS
Maintaining the Analytic Framework
 The psychoanalytic process stresses maintaining a particular framework such as:
 Regularity and consistency of meetings.
 Starting and ending the session on the same time.
 No shifting of residence.
 The state at which you started therapy should be maintained throughout therapy.
Free Association
 Clients are allowed to talk freely about all aspects of their experiences just as they occur
to them in the counselling situation. No censoring it doesn’t mater how trivial or
uninteresting. Some of these details seem to be on the surface but the therapist look for
hidden meaning. The counsellor takes not of these for interpretation. This helps to bring
unconscious material to the conscious.

TRANSFERENCE
• The development of the counselor/client relationship is considered to be very crucial in
psychoanalysis counseling because in many ways it recreates for the client some of his
early relationships, especially those with his parents or significant others in the past.
• It is a fact that people tend to transfer to new relationship many of the feelings and
attitudes which they experienced in childhood.
• Helps client to work through old conflicts that are keeping them fixated and retarding
their emotional growth.
COUNTER TRANSFERENCE

35
 • Counter transference is a very important dimension in psychoanalysis and the counselor
needs to be constantly aware of in order to deal with it successfully.
• This is because it is easy for the counselor to be influenced by unconscious material
originating from their own past experiences
INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS:
• According to Freud Dreams are the royal roads to the unconscious.
• Clients are encouraged to become aware of their dreams in order to facilitate a deeper
understanding of the unconscious forces which influence their lives.
• They are encouraged to record their dreams and bring in the counseling session so that
interpretation can take place.
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESISTANCE
• Resistance is the client’s reluctance to bring to the surface of awareness unconscious
material that has been repressed.
• Resistance helps people to avoid intolerable anxiety that would arise if they were to
become aware of their repressed impulses and feelings.
• The therapist points out and clients must confront it if they hope to deal with conflicts
realistically.
Freud’s Symbols and Meaning

SYMBOL MEANING

House Human Body

House with balcony Female Body
Little Animals Children
Children Genitals
Beginning a journey Dying
Elongated Objects (Snake) Penis
Fruit Breast
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Climbing stairs Intercourse.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
 It is the benchmark where the other theories have
come up by disputing some of
his work.
 It has contributed a lot in understanding mental
defense mechanism.
 It has contributed in understanding personality development and how it affects
our behavior.
 Understanding effects of early childhood, the unconscious and structure of
personality.
LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

 It is expensive and time consuming

 It ignores socio economic influence of individual behavior.
 It removes responsibility from the client.
 The approach stress the role of the insight.
 The concepts cannot be verified by research methods.

BEHAVIOUR APPROACHES
• Behavior therapy offers various action – oriented methods to help people take steps to
change what they are doing and thinking.
• Key figures Arnold Lazarus, Albert Bandura, Joseph Wolpe, J.B Watson, B.F
Skinner Wan Pavlov.
• Historically the behavioral tend developed in 1950s early 1960s as a radical departure
from the psychoanalytic perspective. Three major phases of development of behavior
therapy are;
– The classical conditioning
– The operant conditioning

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 – The Social Trend

View of Human Nature.

• Modern behavior therapy is grounded on a scientific view of human behavior that implies
a systematic and structured approach to counseling.
• The current view is that the person is the producer and the product of his or her
environment. (Bandura, 1974, 1977, 1986)
• Therapies focus on the clients’ current problems and the factors influencing them as
opposed to their historical determinants.
• They emphasize over behavior changes as the main criteria by which treatment should be
evaluated; yet cognitive processes are not excluded.
• They specify treatment goals in concrete and objective terms in order to make replication
of treatment interventions possible.
• Research is considered essential to providing effective treatments and to advancing
beyond current therapeutic practices.
• Behaviour therapy is largely educational in nature.
• Behavioral procedures are tailored to fit the unique needs of each client.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – IVAN PAVLOV

• Pavlov was a Russian psychologist born 1849-1936. He studied animal psychology at

university.
• In 1904 he won a Nobel prize for his work on the physiology of the canine digestive
system
• He termed his study classical conditioning
• He did his experiment with dogs and he noticed that sometimes the dogs could salivate
when no food was present. This would occur when the assistant who bring food could
come with a container.

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 • He did an experiment and confirmed that when food was placed in the dog’s mouth the
dog would salivate, but it would not salivate at the sound of a ringing bell.
• In the second part of the experiment, he rang the bell first and then placed some food in
the dog’s mouth. This pairing was repeated many times. Finally the bell was rung and
the dog salivated in response even when no food was presented. The dogs had been
conditioned that food will be provided after the bell rings therefore they salivate when
they heard the bell ring.

J.B WATSON (1878 – 1958)

• He is a U.S professor of psychology is often referred to as the father of behaviorism
• His interest was the study of pure behavior.
• In order for learning to occur, an association or connection must be made and it must be
renewed at intervals which is a fairly close together.
• Watson conditioned a child to fear a white rat by frightening the child with loud noise
each time the child played with the animal. After a while the child displayed fear of the
rat even when the loud noise was omitted. This was extended to other objects like furry
toys and fur coats
• Example: Many phobias are due to conditioning which can be subsequently
unconditioned.

OPERANT CONDITIONING - BURRHUS FREDRICK SKINNER

• He is another U.S psychologist born (1904-1990)

• He used the term operant conditioning to describe the process of learning responses
because the responses are learned as a result of the animal or individual operating on the
environment or responding to a stimuli.
• He came up with the following
– Positive reinforcement
– Negative Reinforcement
• Positive rein forcers

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 • Are rewards given each time somebody gives a correct response to a stimulus a reward is
given e.g. money, comfort, affection, praise and food.
• The frequency of a response increases because it is followed by pleasant stimulus.

Negative Rein forcers

• It involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus once the correct response has been
made. You are removing the unpleasant stimulus.
• NB/ It is quite different from punishment because Negative reinforcement increases the
probability a response will occur whereas punishment decreases the prompting that
somebody will repeat the behavior.

SOCIAL LEARNING - ALBERT BANDURA (1925)

Social Learning considers the importance of behavior and cognition in understanding human
behavior.
• Social learning Theory is the view of psychologists who emphasize that behavior is
learned through experiences with the environment and that cognitive factors influence
learning
• Children learn from the experience of others mainly through observation imitation.
• Learning can occur through vicarious learning. Children learn from parents and
significant other people in the society.
• For Observational learning to take place Bandura came up with the following
requirement:

• Attention – Without which no one can learn

• -Retention–Which is essential if observable behavior is to be remembered
• - Ability to reproduce - Reproduce the behavior retained when appropriate
• -Motivation – A good reason to perform the act

Assessment
Obtain a precise description

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 – Define the controlling stimuli.
– Determine the Rein forcers
– Formulate the Problem
– Elicit relevant historical information
– Design and Implement a treatment program
– Re-evaluate the formulation periodically

THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES

. RELAXATION.
• It has become increasingly popular as a method of teaching people to cope with the
stresses produced by daily living. It is aimed at achieving muscle and metal relaxation
and is easily learned.
2. Systematic Desensitization
• This procedure is used primarily for anxiety and phobic clients. It is the most widely
employed technique in behavioral theory. The phobic patient/clients is asked to rank in
order clearly defined situations which cause him distress/anxiety. Although this can be
carried out in fantasy there is clear evidence that in vivo desensitization is more
effective.
• Three steps followed are:-
• Relaxation training
• development of the anxiety hierarchy
• Systematic desensitization proper
• It is essential at each stage in this procedure that the therapist should wait until the client
is completely at ease in a particular situation before presenting the next item.

3. Flooding (Implosive therapy)

• This is a more cost effective procedure for eliminating phobias although it can prove
more distressing for the client. Here the therapist encourages the client to face up to the
feared situation either in imagination or real life for prolonged periods. The rule is the

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 more severe the problem the longer the client should be exposed to the anxiety eliciting
cues.
4. Modelling
• Refers to the process by which the behavior of an individual or a group acts as a
stimulus for similar thoughts, attitudes and behavior on the part of observers.
• There are 3 types
• 1. Live models – the therapists becomes the sources of modeling.
• 2. Symbolic Model - Models behavior are shown in films videotapes and other
recording devices.
• 3. Multiple Models – Is especially relevant in group therapy. The observer can change
attitudes and learn new skills through observation of successful peers in the group.

CONTRIBUTIONS

• Is a short term approach that yields result and has wide applicability
• It emphasizes research into and assessment of the techniques used thus providing
accountability.
• Effective in areas of human functioning
• The concepts and procedures/techniques can easily be grasped
• The therapist is an explicit rein forcer consultant model teacher and expert in behavior
change.
• Has multiple techniques to borrow from
• Can be applied into counseling with culturally diverse clients
• This theory go up to the action stage.

LIMITATIONS
• There is a danger of imposing confirming behavior
• Therapist can manipulate clients towards end they have not chosen.
• It does not go back to early childhood
• Technique like flooding can be dangerous

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COGNITIVE APPROACH RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOURAL THEORY
KEY CONCEPTS
• View of Human Nature
• Humans are essentially hedonistic their major goals are to stay alive and to purse
happiness efficiently (pleasure is the main purpose in life)
• Human beings are born with a potential for both rational and irrational thinking
• Humans are unique in that they invent disturbing beliefs and keep themselves disturbed
about their disturbances
• People have the capacity to change their cognitive emotive and behavioural processes.

ABC Theory of Personality

 The basic concept of REBT is that emotional disturbances are largely the product of
irrational thinking. The A.B.C theory of personality is central to REBT theory
A Activity Event
B Belief & Inference
C Emotional & Behaviour Consequences
D Disputing Beliefs
E-Effective way of living
F New feeling

Explanation
• ABC model of personality and emotional disturbance highlights the relationship between
thinking and emotion.
• Ellis view it is not what happens at point A which causes emotional disturbances or
distress
• People form their own inferences and beliefs at point B and reinforce them through the
use of negative and catastrophising self-talk. It is this internal self-talk which then leads
to the emotional and behavioral reactions which occur at point C
• ce a new feeling.
• At point D we help the client dispute the irrational thoughts/beliefs by.
• a) Detecting the irrational belief

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 • b) Debate /Argue for & against the irrational belief
• c) Discriminate irrational beliefs from rational belief.

We then replace the inappropriate belief with appropriate ones and we experience an
effecting way of living
When we are successful in our living then we experience
Cognitive therapy

• Goals of Therapy
• The therapist help the client identify the ways in which his irrational thinking is causing
unhappiness
• Help the clients change their language & have a mere realistic philosophy of life
• Reducing tendency for blaming self and others
• Therapist Function and Role
• To show clients that they have incorporated many irrational beliefs
• The therapist merely shows the client that they have illogical processes.
• Helping them modify their irrational beliefs.

Therapeutic Techniques
• Cognitive
1. Disputing Irrational beliefs
• Therapist shows the client that they are disturbed because of their own perception
therefore teaches them how to do challenging on their own.
2. Cognitive Homework
• They are given homework to be able to track down their absolutes “ought” “must”
or “shoulds”.
3. Changing one’s language
• Taught on how to reduce the use of absolutes and masturbating thoughts.
4. Use of Humour
• Not taking life seriously and losing one’s sense of perspective and humour over
the events of life.

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 5. Thought stopping
• Disrupting intrusive thoughts

Therapeutic Techniques

• Emotive Technique
• Rational – Emotive Imagery
• The client is shown how to imagine an awful situation feels the pain and then how to
change the experience to an appropriate feeling. Once they are able to change their
feelings they will be able to change the behavior.
• Role playing
• There are both emotional and behavioral components in role playing behavioral
components e.g. an interview.
• Shame – attacking exercises
• Help client get rid of irrational shame over behaving in certain ways. Ellis feels we can
stubbornly refuse to feel ashamed.
• Use of force and vigor
• Clients are shown how to conduct forceful dialogues with themselves in which they
express their irrational beliefs and then powerfully dispute them

CONTRIBUTIONS
• Helping people to know they can come up with their own philosophy of life
• They focus on the emotions thoughts and behavior
• Emphasize putting newly acquired insights into action
• Emphasis on eclectic practice i.e. borrowing techniques from cognitive, emotive and
behavioral
• It has a non-deterministic view.

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 • Teach clients ways that they can carry on their own therapy without the direct
intervention of a therapist.
• LIMITATION
• Does not go back to History.
• Counselor can impose their values and beliefs on the client.
• Clients can be intimidated by such quick confrontation before the relationship has built.
HUMANISTIC APPROACH
• Humanistic Approach is the 3rd force of theories and they emphasis personal growth and
freedom. The approach believes we are all self actualizing. There three theories under
humanistic
• Person centre – Carl Rogers
• Gestalt – Fritz perls
• Existential – formed by Psychologists and some psychiatrists.
They believed we are free and therefore responsible for our choices and actions

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
• Human beings are basically phenomenological.
• People are essentially trustworthy/good
• People have vast potentials for understanding themselves and resolving their own
problem
• They are capable of self directed growth if they are involved in a therapeutic relationship.
• N/B- A philosophy or method of inquiry based on the premise that reality consists of
objects and events as they are perceived or understood in human consciousness and not of
anything independent of human consciousness.

PERSON CENTRED THEORY

• Carl Rogers is one behind person centred theory. He is an American Psychologist born in
Illinois in 1924th gave birth to - 6 children dies 1987. He came up with his theory because
he did not believe people’s problems originate from the past and did not believe the

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 behaviorist who dwelt only on observable behaviors. He believed we are all self
actualizing and we are capable of finding solution of our own problems
• KEY CONCEPTS
• View of Human Nature
• He viewed as plants if natured well they thrive. Therefore the counsellor should provide
the nutrients which the client requires to self-actualize
• He views human beings as all good
• Human beings can develop in a positive and constructive manner if climate of respect and
trust is established.

KEY CONCEPTS
• The Organismic Self
• It is also referred to as the real self.
• When a child is born they are real organismic self
• Taken when they interact with the world the organismic self is replaced partly by the self
concept
• The organismic self provides the individual with trustworthy messages
The self Concept
• The self concept is the self as perceived or what a person refers to as “1” or “me”
• When children grow and interact with the environment they develop self concept which
includes both their perceptions about themselves and the varying positive and negative
values attached to these self perceptions
• The development of self concept is influenced by an individual’s need for positive regard
or approval from his/her significant others. We want to confirm
The condition of worth
• A need for positive regard from others is a learned need developed in early infancy.
• Such values which are based on others evaluations rather than on the individuals own
organismic valuing process are called condition of worth e.g. You will be a good
girl/boy if you pass your exams. I will buy a bicycle for you if you become number one
in school.

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 • Their condition of worth both in their own eyes and in those of significant others is
conditional upon winning approval and avoiding disapproval and this restricts their
behavior because they will behave in ways which they are sure to be acceptable to others
• They are victims of the “conditions of worth’ living to please others & forgetting self.
We need to value people unconditionally
• Locus of Evaluation
• According to Carl Rogers people who have learned to obey and trust the organismic self
in decision making in the awareness and articulation of present thought and feelings he
refers to them as having an internal locus of evaluation e.g coming for counseling course
because you obeyed your organismic self. There are other people who will rely on
external authorities

BASIC COUNSELING SKILLS

Introduction
• Learning counselling skills is exciting and influential dev. Of the helping relationship
• Counselling skills are used in all fields e.g. medicine, social work, human resource,
pastoral care, education, relationships etc
• Skills are not simply what you communicate but how you communicate
• Counselling skills are powerful tool of eliciting information from people
COUNSELLING SKILLS

What are counseling skills?

• Counseling skills are soft (interpersonal) and hard (technical) attributes that a counselor
puts to use in order to best help their clients work through personal issues and overcome
obstacles that are currently preventing them from living a full and happy life.

Effective Counselling Skills

• Counsellors use counselling skills to help them better understand and listen to clients.
• A skill is a tool of change, an art of doing/method, ability to perform a task from a learnt
knowledge
• Jones (1996) says counseling skills help counselors to facilitate behavior attitude and
motivational change in a client.
There are more than 25 skills. We shall look at the most common

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1. ATTENDING SKILL
• Giving undivided attention to a client
S O L E R
• PURPOSE
- Helps client verbalize issues freely
- Creates confidence, trust in the relationship
- Client feels you want to understand him/her

2. STRUCTURING
This is any statement by the counselor to let client know how counseling session will be done
e.g.
-What the role of cllr and client is
-what to expect during the process and outcome
-gives goals and reason for session
-talk of confidentiality
-let client know they can sue you if breach confidentiality
-client is responsible for presenting concerns
-time the session takes
Purpose of structuring
• Helps reduce anxiety
• Helps explain goals and purpose of session
• Helps communicate limitations concerning cllng r/ship eg. Restriction on confidentiality

3. ACTIVE LISTENING
• Is the most important skill in cllng
• Its about receiving sound and accurate understanding and meaning
• Observing, listening to vocal cues, body movement, watery eyes, skin
• Communicating non verbally (nods)
Purpose of active listening
• Allows client examine their feelings

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 • Allows counsellor to walk with client in journey of self discovery
• Allows development of trust between client and counsellor

4. OBSERVATION
• Counsellor pick non verbal communication e.g. Eye contact, skin, posture, facial
expression, hand movement and touching
Purpose
• Helps understand client’s body language whether non verbal flows with what he/she is
saying
• Helps to be in touch with clients verbal and non verbal communication

5. PARAPHRASING
This is restating in your own words the clients core message either in similar or in fewer
words
Purpose
-tests if cllr understand what client is saying
-communicates to the client that you are trying to understand his/her core message
-it encourages client to go on and on
-client feels understood

6. IMMEDIACY
The ability to discuss directly with client what is happening in the here and now
Purpose
-client understands self more clearly eg. Biting lips, nails
-helps bring counseling back to track so as to achieve goals
-promotes and stimulates interpersonal growth
-helps to avoid issues going out of hand

7. SELF DISCLOSURE
This is revealing to a client how you reached a certain situation about your past that is
relevant to what you are talking about

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 Purpose
-challenges client to explore their own material in light of another
-creates trust and some sense of shared pain and experience

8. SILENCE
Silence can be uncomfortable. It shows you are present physically and emotionally
Purpose
-helps client to gain insight
-gives cllr and client time to reflect what has been going on
-can be a sign that a client has come to the end of his/her thoughts
-can be interpreted that cllr is not interested

9. CONFRONTATION
Confrontation is anything that invites a client to examine their emotions, experiences and
behaviors more carefully. It helps unmask discrepancies, distortions, games that clients
may use to hide their issues
Purpose
• Helps challenge clients distorting issues
• It allows counsellng relationship to be based on trust and understanding
• Helps clarify what a counsellor feels

9. RESPONDING
Communicating back to the client
Purpose
-client feels you are with them
-makes client go on and on

10. QUESTIONING
Enquiring for details
Purpose
-helps focus on aspects

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 Helps clarity nature of problem

11. MINIMAL PROMPTS/ENCOURAGERS

Reduced support verbally
Purpose
-helps counsellor not to talk a lot in counselling but to listen and listen carefully

12. Focusing skill

This is directing the clients conversational flow into the areas you want
Purpose
-helps client think properly towards clarifying feelings and actions
-helps client explore personal beliefs which maybe getting in his/her way

13. CONCRETENESS
This is being clear and specific (egan 1977)
Purpose
-helps avoid misunderstanding and game playing
-helps one talk about specific feelings and emotions
-conversations that lack concreteness tend to be boring and time wasting

14. SUMMARISING
This is bringing together ideas, feelings at the end of a discussion
Purpose
-helps client focus on issues of concern
-brings awareness of progress in the counsellng relationship at the middle and end of
session
-encourages client to explore issues being brought out by counsellor towards the end to
allow for working on issues
-helps helper write a report

15. WARMTH

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 Creating a conducive environment
Not being judgmental
accepting the client without conditions
Purpose
-client feels at home/wanted/sense of belonging

CULTURE SENSITIVITY
Different cultures have cultural differences. Be cautious on the following when dealing
with clients: culture-culture/gender -gender/client-client:
• Distance between you and client differs from culture to culture
• Eye contact
• Touch
• One on one with opposite sex

FOLLOW RULES

• Do not come too close

• Do not make long eye contact

• Do not touch client any how

• Do not spend too much time alone with client of opposite sex (15 – 1hr maximum)

• Be cautious of your own behavior

WHAT TO AVOID IN COUNSELLING

• Avoid threats
• Avoid burdening clients with your own difficulties
• Avoid displays of impatience
• Avoid political/religious discussions
• Avoid arguing

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 • Avoid belittling clients
• Avoid blaming
• Avoid rejecting other person
• Avoid displays of intolerance
• Avoid blanket statements
• Avoid probing difficult or emotional material issues when client is resistant
• Avoid unnecessary re-assurance
• Avoid advising
• Avoid labelling

The role of a school counselor

This includes:

 guidance and counselling for students, teachers, support staff, and parents, caregivers and
guardians, including one-on-one counselling, family conferences, group therapy and
trauma response
 promoting a shared understanding of guidance and counselling through professional
learning and development for staff

 student mediation

 advocacy for students both internal and external to the school

 liaison with families and guardians

 referrals to, and liaison with, specialist agencies, community agencies, health providers
and social workers

 administration such as case notes and reporting, meetings with colleagues and, for some,
management of other counsellors or pastoral care team members, and reviewing policies
and procedures

 involvement in enrolment and induction of students

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  oversight of external student support people working in the school

 facilitating student programmes such as peer support, peer mediation, anti-bullying,

alcohol and drugs, life skills, Travellers, peer sexuality, student leader training.

 dealing with traumatic incidents/crisis management

QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE COUNSELLOR

Qualities of an effective Counselor

What qualities or attributes should you possess as a counselor in order to pass on effective
messages and communication to your patient/clients?

Counseling is the application of mental health, psychological or human development principles,

through cognitive, affective, behavioral or systemic intervention strategies, that address wellness,
personal growth, or career development, as well as pathology. Thus counseling focuses on
helping people make changes unlike guidance that focuses on helping individuals choose what
they value most. Therefore a counselor is a person who gives counsel or advice.

Counselors work in diverse community settings designed to provide a variety of counseling,

rehabilitation, and support services. Their duties vary greatly, depending on their specialty,
which is determined by the setting in which they work and the population they serve. Although
the specific setting may have an implied scope of practice, counselors frequently are challenged
with children, adolescents, adults, or families that have multiple issues, such as mental health
disorders and addiction, disability and employment needs, school problem or career counseling
needs, and trauma. Counselors must recognize these issues in order to provide their clients with
appropriate counseling and support.

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To be an effective counselor you must possess the following qualities:
i. Confidentiality: whatever transpires in any counselling session should be kept in private.
It should not be discussed with other parties unless the client gives his explicit
permission.

ii. Patience: Effective Counsellors are not in hurry to put words in the clients mouths.

You need to be very patient. Go to the next step of explanation only when the
patient/client has clearly understood the content of the information you are giving. Thus
you need to have ample time for the client/patient.
iii. Emotional stability: since we are all unique individuals and react differently in any
situation, counsellors need to be aware of this and always act maturely.

iv. Availability: just to know that a counsellor is reachable is good enough for many clients.

v. Flexibility: an effective counsellor needs to be flexible in order to cater for all types of
clients.

vi. Empathy: Empathy is ability to understand people from their frame of reference rather
than your own. Give empathy not sympathy. By giving empathy: - a counselor puts
herself/himself in client’s situation without losing it.

vii. Genuiness: Counselor must be real, Must let your outward responses be congruent to
inner feelings and sensations. If counselor is genuine then the client will not have masks.
Client gets to trust a genuine counselor

viii. Unconditional Positive Regard: (U.P.R.) This is: Deeply valuing the humanity and
uniqueness of a client regardless of their shortcoming. Its consistent acceptance of
enduring and showing warmth to a client. Its about communicating value “I value
you”,warmth.

LEGAL AND ETHICAL ISSUE IN COUNSELLING

Ethical standards are designed to provide guidelines for behavior. They serve the following
purpose:
 Protect members from practices that may result in public condemnation
 Provide a measure of self evaluation.
 Protect the client from cheats and incompetence.
 Protect the counselor from legal measures arising from mal-practice
Different bodies have different ethical standard otherwise if not one fails as a counselor.

Professional ethics for counselors include the following;

a.) Professional demand:

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 Professionalism is crucial in effective counseling. Adequate training in theory and practice
are require and a wide variety of theories, techniques, strategies and materials for individual
and group counseling needs to be utilized. Licensure and certification of professional
counselor have a bearing on a legal status of the profession. It protects the client and
counselors in legal matters i.e. how suits in cases of liabilities due to mal practice and
professional negligence.

b.) Relationship issues- (Dual relationship)

In entry to a professional relationship the counselor and the client interact deeply. Dual
relationships are likely to arise from these situations. This occur any time the counselor
and the client have a relationship in addition to the professional. The social relationship
impairs the professional judgment and affects the counselors’ ability to make appropriate
decisions. There is the risk of exploitation from either of the parties involved.
The counselor must thus watch for transference and counter transference. A counselor
should be involved with the client but be separate from the client, there should not exist
another relationship with the client. e,g family members. The reason is the client will not
open up, the counselor should refer the client to another counselor.
Transference- when the client has emotional feelings to the counselor and the vice versa
for counter transference.

c.) Confidentiality
This is considered a fundamental because by its nature a counseling process is deeper
relationship which sometimes involves clients diverging information about their current
and past situations as well as their opinions and innermost feelings. This can only takes
place in a relationship based on trust. Confidentiality highlights a professional ethical
responsibility to respect a client’s right to control personal information and access to it.
Conditions under which confidentiality is breached are;
i.) Duty to protect ( suicidal and homicidal)
ii.) Duty to report ( to law enforcers)
iii.) Duty to warn ( those at risk)
iv.) Legal subpoena/ witness court summons – Is a court summon where the person is
suppose to give information related to crime the client.
However before information is released the client should be made understand and be
educated and if possible give informed consent.

Unethical Behavior& Ethical Codes

what would constitute unethical behavior from a counselor. Consider this list.
1. Incompetence, that is, inadequate knowledge and the absence of skills necessary for
professional behavior.
2. Lack of integrity, moral commitment and sound professional judgment to adhere to
acceptable standards of right and wrong action.
3. Violating confidences. Information presented in a counseling relationship is confidential.

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 4. Exceeding the level of professional competence. Counselors must recognize their
strengths and limitations in serving their clients in the most competent manner - or refer
them to other experts.
5. Imposing values on clients. It is a responsibility of counselors to be aware of his/her
values and of their impact on others.
6. Creating dependence on the part of the clients to meet the counselor's own needs, e.g.,
sexual relations and social interactions.
7. Improper advertising, especially advertising that presents the counselor as one who has
the skills, competence and/or credentials, that he, or she, does not actually possess.
8. Charging fees for private counseling to those who are entitled to free services through the
counselor's employing institution, and/or using one's job to recruit clients for a private
practice.

COLLABORATION IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

1. Networking
2. Consultation
3. Referral
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELING IN SCHOOLS
There are no of well-developed procedures of building programs that are both
organized sound and capable of having an impact on those served. Counselors have
some responsibility for program building. One may be actually initiating entirely
new program, modifying or expanding an existing program to meet new and
emerging such as teaching out the disadvantage the unemployed, drop outs,
providing services for the develop college population or establishing healthy
relationship with emotionally maladjusted individuals in the community.
The planning process is as follows:
1.) Organizing support and approach: the management and coordination
of program planning is a consideration. The approval and support of
organization must be solicited. Program developers must have prior back
ground for planning, management, competence as well as an
understanding of theory on which the program will be based of .e.g.
student development.
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 2.) Formulating the program rationale: by working at philosophical
assumptions underlying the program as well as evaluation and motivation
the goals of the program are generated.
3.) Needs assessments: needs of the target group are assessed by data
gathering techniques. The input of concerns maybe obtain .e.g. teachers,
parents and students.
4.) Formulating goals and objectives: data obtained is used to determine
the broad goals of the program and this should be put in order of
important objectives of the program should be formulated in terms that
make evaluation possible. Objectives must be stated in ways that allow
observation of results.
5.) Functions: resources .e.g. facilities, equipment, time and financial
support should be considered for providing intervention plans.
6.) Staffing: assignment of responsibilities for the staff should be in line
with their competence and their staff development may be needed to
enable a person update existing skills and learn new ones.
7.) Evaluation: the objective provide the basis for extenuating how well one
is doing. Since the results may be threatening for the staff, efforts, should
be made to ensure that evaluation data is revealed.
8.) Planning budget: budgetary provisions must be considered and as part
of the final plan should be developed showing all types of cost including
personnel, suppliers, materials, space utilities.
9.) Implementation and evaluating the program: the program should be
put into operation and evaluation of its effectiveness and analysis of the
results may show that changes are needed. Evaluation should not stop
with the initial trial of the program but it should be a continuous process.

How does counseling differ from other Interactions

The counseling process differs from other forms of interpersonal relationships
because of several unique conditions;
1.) Attention: The client receives the total attention from the counselor.
2.) Special training: A counselor has a special training to assist in clarifying
the client’s concern. He or she listens carefully to what the clients says and how it
is said because both verbal and non verbal elements of the client’s communication
give important cues in understanding the situation.
3.) Responsibility: The client is responsible for the content of what is talked
about and the counselor facilitates the process.

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4.) Confidentiality: All concerns are confidential, limited only to the
counselor’s concern for assisting the client within the guidelines of the school and
the social system in which they live. The client is free to relate concerns of highly
personal in nature secure in the knowledge that the counselor’s digression
regarding the content of the counseling session can be trusted.

5.) Action oriented: There is a constant push to the client to do something

about the concern expressed, synthesizing information guided through counseling,
the client is able to project the consequences of alternative kind of behavior, plans
and make decision for the future in ways calculated to enable the client to live
more effectively in terms of thinking, feeling and acting.
6.) Corrective feedback for behavior: There is an opportunity for the client to
try out a new behavior and get immediate corrective feedback from the counselor
prior to drive out behavior in a typical social situation.
7) Decision making and problem solving: Counseling differs from other
interactions because the client is able to learn generalized methods of
decision making and problem solving.

Referral

Referrals in Counselling

Definition
Feltham and Dryden (1993: 157) define ‘referral’ as ‘directing someone to a counsellor or
alternative source of treatment’.
Clients may be referred inwards to a counsellor (by, for example, a GP or another counsellor) or
be referred onwards by a counsellor (to another professional helper better suited to helping the
client). This article is about onward referrals.

Some services may accept only self-referrals (that is, the client must refer themselves – though
may often have been ‘signposted’ (i.e. given information on the service) by a third party.

Making appropriate referrals is part of professional conduct for counsellors in practice. A referral
procedure should provide a seamless journey from one professional helper to another.

Reasons for Onward Referrals

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The Ethical Framework for the Counselling Professions, published by the British Association for
Counselling and Psychotherapy (2018: 6), includes in its commitment to clients that counsellors
will ‘work to professional standards by … working within our competence’.

Working within your own competence is key, and thus there will be times when making a
referral is the ethical decision.

Circumstances under which counsellor may refer a client

i. The client needs help with other issues (such as housing problems, financial difficulties,
law-related matters or medical issues) instead of – or before being ready to engage in –
counselling
ii. The client has a mental-health issue that prevents the establishment of psychological
contact (e.g. they are delusional or are hearing voices)
iii. The counselling issue that the client is bringing is not within your area of competence
(e.g. if they need specialist counselling for substance misuse or addiction)
iv. Your agency offers a limited number of sessions, and you know this amount will be
insufficient to work safely with the client
v. Your modality is not a good match for the client’s issue (e.g. the client needs help to
overcome a fear of flying before an imminent holiday abroad, and you are a person-
centred counsellor rather than a cognitive behavioural therapist)
vi. The client is experiencing difficulties that mirror your own – i.e. there is parallel process
(e.g. if a client wishes to work on feelings related to their divorce, and you are currently
struggling with this in your own life)

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