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International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1248 (2022) 012008 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1248/1/012008

Sustainable Biodegradable Plastics and their Applications: A

Mini Review

Jyoteshna Kharb and Ritu Saharan*

Department of Chemistry, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur-302004, India

*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract. Rising concern towards health and environmental menace caused by plastic wastes
has fascinated scientists and chemists to find out greener and sustainable alternatives to
conventional plastics. The conventional plastics are produced from crude oil and fossil fuels and
ever-increasing demand of plastics results in depletion of these natural resources. Moreover, due
to non-biodegradable in nature they persist in environment for a long time. A novel, eco-friendly
and sustainable substitute to the traditional petro based plastic is biodegradable plastic which
can be obtained from renewable and biogenic raw materials such as biomass, starch, wood pulp
and vegetable oils. The utilization of renewable sources, their similar applications as
conventional plastics, biodegradability, nontoxic properties and high recyclability are the major
advantages for the use of biodegradable plastics. They are used for a large variety of applications
in various sectors such as, packing, textiles, consumer goods, agriculture and horticulture,
automotive and transport, coatings and adhesives, construction, electrical and electronics,
medical, food packaging etc. In this mini review various biodegradable plastics, their attainable
properties and applications in a wide variety of fields are summarized.

1. Introduction
Since the origin of synthetic polymers, they have become the indispensable part of the human world
because of their wonderful properties and characteristics such as ductility, malleability plasticity,
lightweight, high durability, good flexibility, cost effectiveness, easy availability and mass production
[1-10]. Plastics can be easily moulded into different shapes (boxes, tubes, films, fibres, bottles, plates,
etc). Nowadays, these polymers are fulfilling our everyday needs like clothing, cosmetic items, toys,
household utilities, TV screens, automotive parts, electronic items, IT tools, food packaging medical
equipments, etc [11-19]. They play a vital and ubiquitous role in human lives. Initially innovation of
plastics was thought to be very beneficial but as the time passed, it has proved to be more hazardous to
the environment [20-23]. Plastics are derived from non-renewable petroleum resources, the overuse of
which led to depletion of these natural resources. These contain organic substances and improper
disposal of them causes death of millions of animals because of choking. These have harmful effect not
only on aquatic organisms but also on terrestrial animals, as they reduce the soil fertility and increases
the chances of eutrophication [24-25]. The biggest problem associated with plastics is that they are non-
biodegradable and persist in the environment for hundreds and even thousands of years [26-36]. Plastic
waste disposal has become a serious environmental menace worldwide [37-38]. This problem will get
worsen and continue to increase exponentially if the worldwide production and use of plastic and its
products will continue to rise at their current rates. Burning of these polymers is also destructive for the
environment as it releases hazardous gases and chemicals which can lead to the risk of serious

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of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
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International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1248 (2022) 012008 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1248/1/012008

respiratory illness, nausea, pulmonary and cardiac diseases, skin rashes, headaches, cancer,
compromised immunity, endocrine disruption, birth defects and severe damage to the reproductive and
nervous system in humans [39-40]. The emitted greenhouse gases such as methane, nitric oxide, carbon
dioxide increase global warming effect [41-42]. Moreover, plastics disintegrate into smaller fragments
called microplastics. These prove to be dangerous for marine animals when get mixed into oceans, seas
and other water bodies and reports of microplastics found in human bodies are also there [43-45].
Therefore, it is necessary to develop eco-friendly and biodegradable substitute of the petroleum based
conventional plastics [46]. The environmental consequences resulted from the use of plastics and their
products has led the emanation of biodegradable plastics in the arena of research [47-56]. These are
considered to be economically and environmentally feasible to replace the traditional petrochemical
plastics [57-64].

2. Biodegradable Plastics
Biodegradable plastics are a kind of environmentally friendly plastic which can be deduced from
renewable resources such as biomass, starch, fats and oils [65-69]. Some waste materials for examples,
food, agricultural and vegetable wastes, renewable feedstocks for example, biomass serve as the key
sources of bioplastics which results in not any environmental pollution, no loss of fossil fuel, and
ultimately no harm to mankind [70]. A population of microbes can also be helpful to obtain
biodegradable plastics from bio-wastes [71]. Biodegradable plastics degrade inherently in the
environment. This process is accomplished when microorganisms, exist in environment, metabolize
and breakdown the structure of biodegradable plastics into simple compounds that are not harmful for
the environment. [72]. There are two kinds of biodegradable plastics: one can decompose in aerobic
process (composting) and the another can decompose in anaerobic environment (landfill) [73]. It
degrades into methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and biomass through microorganisms
in a definite timescale and in definite environments [74]. For example, Polylactic acid (PLA),
thermoplastic starch and Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) based biodegradable plastic etc.
Biodegradable plastics can be an ideal substitution for conventional / traditional plastics due to their
similar applications [75-77]. These are a feasible alternative to achieve environmental sustainability
due to their biodegradability and biocompatibility and the matter of fact that they are made of renewable
and biogenic raw materials such as starch, wood pulp and vegetable oils which make them efficient for
applications in biomedical, medical implants, piping, agricultural sector, packaging, textile industries,
phone cases, bag industry, containers, carpets, etc and other valuable industrial applications [78-79].
The utilization of renewable feedstock and biodegradability are foremost advantages for the use of
biodegradable plastics [80].

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International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1248 (2022) 012008 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1248/1/012008

Figure 1. Sources, properties and applications of biodegradable plastics

Most of the environmental problems caused by plastics can be abolished by utilizing bio-based fibres
and biopolymers produced from natural and renewable bioresources. Biodegradable plastics prove to
be a momentous invention that can pay significant contribution for building the bioeconomy and switch
the reliance from conventional fossil fuel-based resources to bio-based products [10].
Biodegradable plastics are eco-friendly because their manufacture results the discharge of less CO2,
which causes global warming. Utilization of renewable feedstock for the production of plastics can
lower the amount of greenhouse gases (such as CO2 and CH4) emitted into the atmosphere in comparison
of conventional plastic synthesis from fossil fuels [81].
Biodegradable plastics possess a number of wonderful characteristics that make them reliable and
worthy alternative of fossil fuel based conventional plastics. Varied properties of biodegradable plastics
are: [82-88].
a) Based on renewable resources and biomass
b) Biodegradable i.e., degrade in the environment
c) Less energy is utilized during their production process
d) Carbon neutral i.e., quantity of carbon dioxide released during their degradation is
approximately equal to CO2 absorbed by plant during the process of photosynthesis
e) Environment-friendly as these do not cause any pollution

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International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1248 (2022) 012008 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1248/1/012008

Figure 2. Different Properties of Biodegradable Plastics

3. Applications of Biodegradable Plastics

Biodegradable plastics are used for a large variety of applications. They have a largest market segment
in packaging industry. The sustainable nature and biodegradability of PLA, PHA, PBS, starch and
cellulose polymers have made them the ideal tools in various applications to substitute many synthetic
plastics [89-90].

Figure 3. Applications of Bio-based and Biodegradable Plastics in various Sectors [91]

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International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1248 (2022) 012008 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1248/1/012008

These have an extensive range of utility in every field such as packaging, textiles, consumer goods,
horticulture and agriculture, transport and automotive, adhesives and coatings, construction, electrical
and electronics, etc. Packaging sector shares more than half of the total usages of bio-based and
biodegradable plastics. Textile industries find approximately 11% share in the total utility. Agriculture
sector finds 8% contribution. Rest all sectors comprise the remaining portion of applications [91].
The common type of biodegradable plastics that find applications in varied fields are made up of
PLA, PHA, Bio-PBS, Starch and Cellulose and their blends with other polymers.

3.1 Polylactic acid (PLA)

Polylactic acid is a part of the family of aliphatic polyesters composed of monomeric units of lactic
acid. Lactic acid is the -OH group containing carboxylic acid that can be produced by bacterial
fermentation from sugars and starch attained from renewable and natural resources [92-93]. PLA has
very distinctive features such as shining appearance, good rigidity and transparency and ability to
withstand different processing conditions. It has effective heat resistance and mechanical properties
[94].
Due to these features, it has a vast area of applicability in different fields [95]. It is mostly utilized
in packaging of food items which includes water bottles, cups, plates, cutlery, food trays, films,
containers, wrapping papers, etc. Nowadays, PLA fibres are efficiently replacing synthetic plastics from
textile industries. These are used in textile industries for making soft baby wipes, sportswear, dresses,
drapes, shirts, diapers, hard landscape materials, etc. [93,96].
PLA is blended with other materials to boost its mechanical strength and heat resistance. NEC
Corporation in Japan synthesized PLA blended with carbon and kenaf fibres to enhance its thermal
stability and flame retardancy. Computer housings have been prepared by using employed blends of
PLA with polycarbonate. It also finds utility in chemical and automotive industries for making
membrane materials. PLA and its blends have also been employed in human clinical applications. These
are used for producing bioresorbable scaffolds that are used to grow living cells in implants, bone
support splints, etc. [97-102].

3.2 Polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHA)

PHAs represent a group of polyesters that are obtained from fermentation by bacteria. These have the
potential to substitute traditional petroleum based non-renewable resources. Although PHA are found
in different naturally occurring organisms but their production has been mainly employed from
microorganisms. These are obtained from various kinds of bacteria which utilize different types of
renewable and waste feedstock [103-106]. The process of production of PHA through bacterial
fermentation comprises of three steps. The first step involves fermentation by bacteria. The second step
comprises of isolation of the products from bacterial cells and the third step involves purification of the
products from the fermentation broth [65].
These are thermoplastic biopolymers having varied properties that depend upon their chemical
composition and the types of bacteria from which these are obtained. PHAs are biodegradable and
biocompatible polymers [107]. PHAs have very well mechanical and thermal properties. These have
prominent resistance to moisture content and have smell barrier features [108].
Having unique and varying properties, PHA has been tailored in many packings, industrial, as well
as healthcare applications [109]. Materials composed of PHA polymers have been used in food
packaging applications such as disposable spoons, forks, food trays, container lids, closures, caps, tubs,
knives, plates, etc. PHAs also find utility in injection-molded such as fibres, films, laminates, sheets
and coated items. Products such as disposable items, nonwoven fabrics, feminine hygiene products,
synthetic paper items, paints, adhesives, foams, waxes, binders, cosmetic items, medical packaging
materials, housewares, etc. have also been prepared by using PHAs [96,110].
PHAs and its copolymers are also utilized in biomedical applications. These encompass meniscus
repair devices, surgical mesh, sutures, suture fasteners, tissue repair patches, cardiovascular patches,
bone plates, stem cell growth, biocontrol agents, antibacterial agents, anticancer agents and memory

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International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1248 (2022) 012008 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1248/1/012008

enhancers and rivets. Use of PHAs in drug delivery has also become an area of its applicability [111-
115].

3.3 Polybutylene succinate (PBS)

Polybutylene succinate is an aliphatic and biodegradable polyester that is obtained from condensation
of two monomers: succinic acid and 1,4-butanediol. These monomers can be achieved from petroleum-
based resources or from bacterial fermentation. Raw materials for Bio-PBS are mainly obtained from
monomers of cassava and sugarcane plants. Succinic acid is obtained by glucose produced from
renewable resources and 1,4-butanediol is obtained from bio-ethanol. The process of production of bio-
ethanol from sugarcane involves three stages; first is the plantation of sugarcane, second is the
transformation of sugarcane into molasses by the use of sugar milling and refining and the third is
processing of the molasses into bio-ethanol through fermentation [116-117].
Bio-PBS is semicrystalline in nature with high melting point. Its crystal structure affects its thermal
and mechanical features [118]. It has good flexibility, tensile strength, biocompatibility and heat
resistance. Copolymers of PBS can be obtained by adding monomers of adipic acid or sebacic acid to
improve its mechanical strength and rigidity [119].
Bio-PBS and its blends with other polymers have been employed in a vast area of sectors such as
agriculture, packaging, textiles, construction, forestry, healthcare, consumer goods, fishery, automobile
industry, electronics, interiors etc. [120]. It also finds application in developing bottles, filaments, pots
for plants, mulch films, trays, containers, trash bags, hygiene products, laminated paper, gloves, etc.
[121].
Plastic utensils, plates, bowls, diapers, etc. are also being prepared by using Bio-PBS. Blends of
PBS and PLA are extensively utilized to develop different kinds of fibres, sheets, flat and blown films,
etc. Being biocompatible, these are also used in producing packing materials for food items [122].

3.4 Starch
Starch is the most bounteous polysaccharide that occurs naturally on our planet earth. It is
biodegradable, sustainable and renewable resource that is prepared by plants during the process of
photosynthesis and stored in the form of their food. Starch can be derived from different sources for
example, from tubers like tapioca, potato, etc. from cereals such as rice, wheat, corn, etc. and from
cashew nuts [123]. Potato, corn, wheat and cassava are the principal plant sources of starch [124-125].
Starch is comprised of two types of glucose units linked by 1,4- α linkages, one is amylose that is
linear component and the another one is amylopectin that is branched component [126-128]. These
polymers constitute 98 to 99% of the total weight of starch. The rest 0.5 to 2 % of starch is composed
of proteins, non-starch polysaccharides, lipids, ash, etc. The ratio of amylose and amylopectin
significantly affects the characteristic properties of starch [129-130].
Starch is abundantly used as biopolymer because of its renewability, biodegradability and cost-
effectiveness [130-138]. Starch is blended with other polymers and plasticizers to form thermoplastic
starch. It has good mechanical strength, thermal stability and less brittleness. The properties of starch
depend upon its chemical composition [139-140].
Presently, starch and thermoplastic starch find applications in varied sectors such as
pharmaceuticals, food packaging, agriculture and horticulture, engineering, textiles, paints,
construction, paper and cardboard industries, automotive industries, etc. [141-143]. Biodegradable
materials prepared from starch have extensively been used in production of films, shopping bags,
disposable food containers such as cups, plates, trays, etc. overwraps and sanitary products [144].
Packing material for food items have also been obtained from starch-based biopolymers [145-147].
Starch is also used in preparation of mulch films and products needed for controlled release of fertilizers
that are effectively used in agriculture Starch and blends with other polymers have also been efficiently
utilized in medical sector for producing films for releasing the drug, bone efficient cement, etc. [148-
149].

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International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1248 (2022) 012008 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1248/1/012008

3.5 Cellulose
Cellulose is the primary component present in the cell wall of plants. It is also found in the cell wall of
algae and some bacteria. Cellulose has crystalline structure and it comprises of glucose units that are
connected by β-1,4-glycosidic linkages. Wood and fibres of cotton are the main sources that serve as
raw materials for production of cellulose [150-151].
Cellulose is rigid and hard polymer and has a very high tensile strength that makes it suitable and
feasible to be used in formation of biodegradable plastics. It has good thermal stability. Cellulose is
modified in the form of cellulose ethers, cellulose esters and regenerated cellulose so that it can be
utilized in the production of biodegradable plastics [152-154].
Cellulose has a widespread variety of applications in different areas. Cellulose ethers namely
hydroxyethyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose are extensively utilized in production of packaging
materials for food, in personal care articles, construction works, paint, adhesives, medical equipments
and tools [155]. Fibres and films for packaging have been developed by using cellulose esters like
cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate. Fibres and films made up of regenerated cellulose are efficiently
utilized in home furnishing fabrics, clothing and textiles and hygienic disposables [156].
Cellulose is fibrillar in structure and it can be used to develop hydrogels which are utilized in
implantation of bones, tissue engineering, effective drug delivery, modelling of cartilage, cell culture
scaffolds, absorbance of heavy metal ions, etc. [157-159].
Nanocomposites of cellulose find astonishing applications in the arena of medical and healthcare.
These are used for medical implants in both orthopaedic and dental fields. Nanocelluloses and their
composites are also efficiently used in production of wound dressing materials which are designed to
reduce pain and infection and accelerate reepithelialisation. Magnetically active and 3D printing
materials are also being designed by using nano cellulosic materials [160-162].

Some common and basic applications of biodegradable plastics are briefed in the Table 1 given below:
Table 1. Applications of Biodegradable Plastics [163-166]
Sector Applications Examples

Packaging Biodegradable plastic materials are used in food Disposable cutlery, cups, plates,
packaging therefore protects the food materials overwrap, straw, lids etc.
from the environmental contamination and
maintains the quality of food.
Disposable Disposable housewares build up using Kitchen apparatuses and utensils,
Houseware biodegradable plastics are being produced instead washable packing containers and
of conventional plastics, for examples, polyolefin dishes, bathroom fixtures, pegs,
and polystyrene. toys, hooks & knobs etc.

Medical i) Safe biodegradable polymer sutures are used in Sutures, dental implants, TYRX
devices heart operations. absorbable antibacterial envelope
ii) Biodegradable dental implants are utilized for etc.
filling the hole after extraction of a tooth.

Electronic The PLA blends are employed in monitor screens, Loud speakers, touch screen
items they improve impact resistance, precise processing. consumer casings, mouse
excellent high gloss finish. elements of keyboard, and vacuum
cleaners etc.
Automotive Bio-based polyesters and polyamides are used in Automotive parts such as, interior
automotive industry to reduce the environmental trim parts, seat cushions, air filter
impacts of their products. box, tool box area etc.

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International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1248 (2022) 012008 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1248/1/012008

4. Economic Analysis of Biodegradable Plastics with Commercially Available Plastics

According to European Bioplastics, of the 368 million tons bioplastics produced globally, only one
percent is biodegradable and/ or bio-based. Though the bioplastic production is expected to rise more
than 300% by the end of year 2026 from its 2021 statistics of 2.42 million tons worldwide but still
bioplastic is far away from anchoring the market mainly because of the economics involved in the
production of the same. In spite of plastic products being widely synthesized and standardized in almost
every industry from packaging to pharmaceuticals and their reasonable prices also hinders the
acceptance of biodegradable plastics at a large scale [91,167].
Cost of production of biodegradable plastics is aloft than their fossil-based analogues and it cannot
be ascribed to a specific input or technology, because the production process involves diverse complex
feedstocks, technologies and methods. The methods of synthesizing biodegradable plastics, their
technological setup and production conditions vary largely when considered worldwide. The prices of
feedstock also become a controlling factor for the cost of biodegradable plastics. However, currently
prices of some biodegradable plastics such as PLA is very competitive to the commercially available
plastics. It is currently leading the market of bio-based and biodegradable plastics in terms of prices
[167,168].
The prices of different commercially available plastics and biodegradable plastics are compared in
the tables given below [169-174]:

Table 2: Prices of Commercially Available Plastics

S. No. Commercially Available Plastics Prices (US $ per kg)
1. High density polyethylene (HDPE) 1.4-1.6
2. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) 1.36
3. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 1.9
4. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 1.2-1.4
5. Polystyrene (PS) 0.7-1.5

Table 3: Prices of Biodegradable Plastics

S. No. Biodegradable Plastics Prices (US $ per kg)
1. Starch blends 2.09-4.19
2. Polylactic Acid (PLA) 2-3
3. Polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHA) 3-8
4. Polybutylene succinate (Bio-PBS) 4.19

With the increased global focus on sustainable development, people are more concerned about
environmental pollution and there is a paradigm shift towards use of biodegradable products like
bamboo brush is gradually replacing conventional plastic brushes. Similarly, with the increased R&D
in this particular domain, cost of biodegradable plastics is expected to further sink. Additionally, scale
of production will also play a crucial role in deciding the economics of biodegradable plastics
production. With increased demand large-scale production will impact the price modalities and will
drastically reduce the prices of production, conversion into products, management and rest other factors
[168,175].

5. Conclusion
Biodegradable plastics have come to the light after the adverse and destructive effects of plastic
pollution on environment have become unavoidable. The emergence of biodegradable plastics is a
prerequisite for the sustainable and safe environment. Globally, their contribution in conserving and
protecting the environment is significant. The capability of biodegradable plastics as a green alternative
to conventional petroleum-based plastics is efficiently utilized in almost every field of life such as

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International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1248 (2022) 012008 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1248/1/012008

packaging of food products and other stuff, electronics, agriculture, paints, adhesives, construction
works, pharmaceuticals, textiles, automobiles, etc. Their applicability and utility are expanding day-by-
day. Overall, investigation is needed to fully explore, establish and enhance the potential of
biodegradable plastics, their raw materials with desired properties and applications in various spheres
of life so that they can significantly accelerate the protection and sustainability of environment.

Acknowledgments
Authors acknowledge the research facilities from the Head, Department of Chemistry, University of
Rajasthan, Jaipur during the research work.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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