MOMENTUM

Momentum = mass x velocity

Force = change in momentum/time taken

The momentum before the collision is equal to the momentum after the collision.

Car Safety

Steep roads have lanes with deep soft sand:

-​ The soft sand slows down the heavy lorries. Slowing down the lorries will increase the time
taken for the momentum to change.
-​ Therefore the force that is there to slow the lorry is smaller.
-​ Therefore there is less likely to suffer serious injury.

Crumble zones:

-​ They collapse in collisions.

-​ It will increase the time when the car is decelerating.
-​ There is a smaller force.
-​ Less likely to suffer serious injury.

Newton's Third Law

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

THE TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES

Moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot

The weight of a body acts through the center of gravity. ​

​
The sum of anticlockwise moments = the sum of clockwise moments.​
​
When the downward force is right in the middle of the bean, the upward force on the two opposite
ends would be equally distributed, and the value of the weight would be halved. When the weight
(downward force) is moved to one side then the upward force will be higher to that end. When the
downward force is perpendicular and right on the end, the upward force will be all on that end.

ELECTRIC CHARGE
In the nucleus of an atom, there are the positive charged subatomic particles, protons and the
neutral charged subatomic particles, neutrons. And the negatively charged subatomic particles,
electrons would orbit around the nucleus.

The loss of an electron will form a positively charged atom. While the gain of an electron will form
a negatively charged atom.

There are two types of materials, insulators and conductors. Insulators are materials that do not
allow electricity to flow through them easily(plastics, rubber, glass, and wood). Conductors are
materials that allow electricity to follow through easily(metals[copper, tin, and gold]). We can use
friction to charge uncharged objects if the materials are insulators.

The unlike charges will attract while the like charges will repel. ​
​
(STATIC ELECTRICITY) When the uncharged plastic rod is rubbed with an uncharged cloth. The
electrons from the atoms of the rod move onto the cloth. The rod has lost electrons so the rod is
positively charged. The cloth has gained electrons so the cloth is negatively charged.

(ATTRACTION BETWEEN CHARGED AND UNCHARGED) when the charged object is brought
near the uncharged object, the unlike charges with come closer to the surface of the uncharged
item while the like charges with repel and move away from the surface. This gives the uncharged
item the opposite charge of the charged item and it will cause the two items to attract to each
other. ​
​
Uses of Static Electricity

Paint sprayer

-​ Paint merges from the spray gun, and they are charged.
-​ Since the paint drops have the same charge.
-​ They will repel each other and form a thin spray.
-​ The object that needs to be painted, has a wire that will give the object the opposite
charge of the paint drops.
-​ Because of the unlike charges, the paint drops will attract to the object and paint the
object.
-​ There is a benefit because of this, the corners. This would paint the hard-to-reach places.

Inkjet Printers

-​ The spot is released and each spot is given a charge.

-​ So as it falls between a pair of deflecting plates, the electrostatic forces direct it to the
correct position.
 -​ The charges on the deflecting plates change hundreds of times each second so that each
drop falls in a direct position.

Photocopies

-​ The drum is charged.

-​ The image of the object to be copied is formed by keeping the charges on the dark parts of
the image.
-​ The tonner will drop on the drum attracting the charged parts.
-​ The surplus toner is removed.
-​ The paper is pressed against the tonner and the image is copied to the paper.
-​ The paper is heated to melt toner. So the image formed becomes a permanent image on
paper.
(the drum is made of a metal called selenium)
Electrostatic Precipitators

-​ As the smoke initially rises up the chimney, it passes through the mesh with wires that are
highly charged. The dust and ash particles will become negatively charged.
-​ Higher up the chimney, the charged particles will attract and stick to the large metal
earthed plates.
-​ The cleaner smoke is then released into the atmosphere.
-​ The dust and ash fall into a collection of boxes which are later emptied.

Dangers of Static Electricity

-​ After the aircraft has landed the charges will escape to Earth as a spark of electricity.
-​ If this takes place during refueling it will cause an explosion.
-​ The solution is to earth the plane with the conductor as soon as it lands and before
refueling begins, allowing the charge that has built up to flow to Earth.

SOUND

Sound waves are longitudinal waves that can be reflected and refracted.

The frequency range of human hearing is 20 - 20 000 Hz

When a microphone is connected with an oscilloscope the sound wave can be observed.

Finding frequency

-​ Have a steady trace of the wave in the oscilloscope.

-​ Adjust the timebase to receive a single wave cycle.
-​ Count the squares for a single wave cycle.
-​ Multiply the number of boxes by the value of timebase, to receive the time period.
 -​ Use the equation f = 1/T to find the frequency.

Pitch and Frequency

Small objects have sounds with high frequency and, therefore, high pitch.
Larger objects have sounds with lower frequency and, therefore, lower pitch.

Amplitude and Loudness

Larger amplitude - loud sound​

Small amplitude - quiet sound

ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTRICITY GENERATION​

A renewable energy resource is an energy source that is replenished at a faster rate than the rate
at which it is being used

Hydropower Station

Energy in the kinetic store of the flowing water is transferred to the kinetic store of the turbine,
then to the kinetic store of the generator, and transferred electrically to the National Grid

Fossil Fuels

Energy from the chemical store of the fuel is transferred to the thermal store of the water, which
is then transferred to the kinetic store of the turbine, then transferred to the kinetic store of the
generator, and then transferred electrically to the National Grid

Nuclear Power Station

Nuclear store of fuel → Thermal store of water → kinetic store of turbine → kinetic store of
generator

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Fossil Fuels

Dis:
-​ Non-renewable energy source
-​ Causes acid rain
-​ Cause global warming (by releasing carbon dioxide)
-​
Advan:
-​ It is relatively cheap
-​ Easier to store and transport
 -​ Easy to install powerplants

Nuclear Fuel

Dis:
-​ Non-renewable
-​ Installing cost is high
-​ Accidents can cause the release of radioactive waste.

Advan:
-​ Doesn't produce carbon dioxide so it does not contribute to global warming.
-​ Only a small amount of fuel (uranium) is needed to operate it.
-​ Reliable and cost-efficient.

Hydroelectric Power

Dis:
-​ Scenery pollution
-​ Loss of habitat for animals (that might be extinct)

Advan:
-​ Very clean and renewable.
-​ Low cost.
-​ No pollution or contribution to global warming.

Tidal Power

Dis:
-​ Hard to find suitable locations and scenery pollution.
-​ Destroys the habitats for animals.

Advan:
-​ Clean source of energy.
-​ Predictable and stable energy production.
-​ The high amount of power

Wind Power

Dis:
-​ Cause landscape pollution.
-​ Noise pollution
-​ Can kill birds and bats
-​ Unpredictable energy as the wind has to blow and it should be in a place with a high
amount of wind.
Advan:
-​ The energy is clean
-​ No pollution
-​ Renewable

Solar Power Producing Electricity

Dis:
-​ It takes up a lot of space which some people think spoils the countryside.
-​ Good farming land is lost when PV farms are built.

Advan:
-​ There are renewable energy
-​ No pollution as no greenhouse gases are produced.
-​ Cheaper
-​ Can be used when a small amount of electricity is needed for mains electricity.

Solar Power Producing Heat

Dis:
-​ Unpredictable energy as sunlight is always needed
-​ Expensive to install

Advan:
-​ There are renewable energy
-​ No pollution as no global warming
-​ Clean power supply

Geothermal Energy

Dis:
-​ Need specific places with heated springs.
-​ Expensive to start.

Advan:
-​ There are renewable energy
-​ No pollution.
-​ Does not have a great impact on the environment.

THE CHANGE OF STATE

When we heat a system, the particles inside it will gain heat energy and start to gain and increase
the kinetic energy. Due to this the particles will start to move faster and will make their forces of
attraction weaken and cause a change of state.

Solid

Solids have a regular arrangement, particles are closely packed together, and they vibrate in a
fixed position.

Liquid

Liquids have an irregular arrangement, particles are closely packed, and they slide past each
other.

Gases

Gases have particles that are far apart from each other, loosely arranged, and have rapid random
movements.

Specific heat capacity is the energy required to change the temperature of an object by one
degree Celsius per kilogram of mass.

Q = m x c x change in temperature

ELECTROMAGNETISM

When a wire is coiled and wrapped around an iron core and current is passed through it, it makes
an electromagnet.
​
Magnetic field lines in the straight wire

The solenoid magnetic field lines

The flat circular coil magnetic field lines

Movement of particles

There is always an equal opposite force on a particle when it is moving through the magnetic field.
But it has no force when the direction of the particle's movement and the magnetic field is not
parallel.

TRANSFORMERS

In the transformers, the input voltage is higher than the output voltage. The input voltage is
provided by the primary coil (which has more coils which gives a stronger magnetic field that will
give a greater voltage). However, the output voltage is provided by the secondary coil (which has
lesser coils which gives a weaker magnetic field that will give a lower voltage). It is all coiled
around a soft iron core that will link the two coils. And for this to function alternating current will
need to be provided.

How do Transformers work?

(step down transformer)
-​ An alternating current in the primary coil induces it to be an electromagnet.
-​ The iron core increases the strength of the magnetic field.
-​ Due to the change in the direction of the current, the magnetic field direction changes.
-​ The changing magnetic field will be cut by the secondary coil to induce a voltage.

National Grid

-​ Near the powerplant, a step-up transformer is used.

-​ A step-up transformer will increase the voltage but decrease the current.
-​ According to V(p)I(p) = V(s)I(s)
-​ A greater current in cables causes a greater heating current.
-​ So the current is less in cable, and the waste of electric energy as heat would be reduced.
-​ A step-down transformer will be used closer to domestic areas
-​ For safety purposes.

Primary voltage/secondary voltage= primary turns/secondary turns

V(p) x I(p) = V(s) x I(s)​

Input power = output power

HR DIAGRAM

Absolute magnitude is brightness of the star at the standard distance.

COSMOLOGY

The two main pieces of evidence supporting the Big Bang are
1.​ The red-shift of galaxies
2.​ Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation

The Red Shift of Galaxies

-​ The greater the redshift of a galaxy, the galaxy is far away from Earth.
-​ The greater the redshift, the faster the galaxy moves away from Earth.
-​ Speed is directly proportional to the distance.
-​ Hence universe is expanding and should have started at a point.

CMBR

-​ CMBR appears to be the same everywhere.

-​ The universe should have started from a single point.
-​ The universe was hotter long ago due to irradiation.
-​ Currently due to the presence of microwave length that has increased due to the
expansion of the universe.

Doppler Effect

A moving object will cause the wavelength, λ, (and frequency) of the waves to change: The
wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases (λ – Δλ), and the frequency increases.
The wavelength behind the source increases (λ + Δλ) and the frequency decreases. This effect is
known as the Doppler effect or Doppler shift

Change in wavelength/reference wavelength = velocity of a galaxy/speed of light

Redshift and Blueshift

If an object moves away from an observer the wavelength of light increases. This is known as
redshift as the light moves toward the red end of the spectrum

redshift - The phenomenon of the wavelength of light appearing to increase when the source
moves away from an observer

If an object moves towards an observer the wavelength of light decreases. This is known as
blueshift as the light moves towards the blue end of the spectrum