GRAMMAR

PHRASE
Grammatically, a phrase is a group of words, without a finite verb, that is arranged together in a
sentence without making full sense. Phrases are groups of two or more words that work together
to perform a single grammatical function in a sentence. Examples of phrases are: The man,
Inside the car, My money, Our nation, The new students, Our car, The beautiful woman, The
President, etc.
Types of Phrases
1. Noun phrase: As the name suggests, this is a phrase in which the headword is a noun or
pronoun and which performs any of the five grammatical functions explained below.

a. Noun phrase as subject of a sentence

i. Our new students have done the work.

ii. The car is my own.

iii. Driving home is his hobby.

b. Noun phrase as object of a verb

i. Mr. President has appointed a new Minister.

ii. My father beat the lazy boy.

iii. The robber killed the rich Politician.

c. Noun phrase as complement of a subject

i. My father is a loving father.

ii. Our children are all new students.

iii. My wives are responsible women.

d. Noun phrase as complement of an object

i. Our management nominated Moyo as Rector.

ii. I made my lawyer our signatory.

iii. We gave Olu our leadership award.

e. Noun phrase as complement of preposition

i. Mr. John came after a long wait.

ii. My wife drove under a heavy security.

iii. The new student passed before his parents.

2. Adjectival phrase: We know the adjectival phase in a sentence because of its role as an
adjective. This can be seen in the underlined groups of the sentences below:

i. I brought the man in white shirt.

ii. This is your car with red colour.

iii. The case on murder accusation is on air.

3. Adverbial phrase: The adverbial phrases in sentences are of different types and they perform
the functions of adverbs either as modifier of the verb and an adjective or another adverb in a
sentence. They are as classified below:

a. Adverbial phrase of time: This shows when an action occurs.

i. I saw him last year.

ii. The Policeman shot him during the operation.

iii. My child passed brilliant last semester examination.

b. Adverbial phrase of place: This indicates where precisely an action takes place.

i. She left the money inside his car.

ii. You ate the food near the kitchen.

iii. His car was parked under the canopy.

c. Adverbial phrase of reason: This shows why an action occurs. These are the examples:
i. Our nation gives palliative on account of surplus budget.

ii. He came late because of his faulty car.

iii. The students all came hoping to write the test.

d. Adverbial phrase of purpose: This phrase indicates the purpose of an action.

i. He brought his children himself so that they could pass.

ii. I read the book to know the characters.

iii. You should come to find the missing script.

e. Adverbial phrase of manner: This phrase shows how an action is performed.

i. He drove the car with care.

ii. I ate the food with my bare hand.

iii. Our manager signed in a nasty way.

f. Adverbial phrase of result: This shows the result of an action

i. I married her, becoming the first mother in our family.

ii. They came early, as the organisers of the party.

iii. He brought the money, being the first to pay.

g. Adverbial phrase of concession: This is usually used with “although”, “despite”. This is to
indicate the opposite of the expected action.

i. He came to my house, despite his dislike.

ii. I bought the car, although too expensive.

iii. They wrote the exam despite their ill health.

4. Prepositional phrase: A prepositional phrase is a phrase that is introduced by a preposition. It

begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun. Its object and any words that modify
the object are elements of the prepositional phrase. Example are;
i. She was hiding under the car.

ii. They came through the red sea.

iii. The cook served the food inside a clean plate.

THE CLAUSE
Grammatically, a clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb and may function as a
member of a complex structure or unit. There are two major types of clauses in English namely;
main clause or independent clause and subordinate or dependent clause.
A. The main/independent clause: The main or independent clause can stand on its own as a
complete sentence. It makes senses on its own and expresses complete thought. The main clause
is likewise called the principal clause as part of a sentence. Examples of main, independent or
principal clause are:
i. We met the new President.
ii. I schooled in Canada.

iii. The students are doing their work.

We must note that aside the subject and verb in the main clause, other grammatical elements
such as adverbs, preposition phrases, can be added at the beginning, middle or end of the clause
to provide more information. From the examples above, if other grammatical elements are added,
we could have these structures:
i. We met the President, early this morning.

ii. I schooled in Canada, last year.

iii. The students are doing their work right now.

B. Subordinate/ dependent clause: Unlike the main or independent clause, subordinate or
dependent clause relies on the main clause or the independent clause to make sense or express a
complete thought. A dependent clause must be connected to an independent clause to fully
realise its meaning or complete its meaning. Examples of subordinate or independent clauses are:
i. When I came this morning. ii. Since the students resumed. iii. After he lost the election.

We must note that the above examples cannot stand on their own because they do not express
complete meanings. We need to join them to main clauses to realise their full and complete
senses. In this wise, we would have full realization if the needed main clauses are added as in the
following examples:
i. When I came this morning, I saw them.

ii. Since the students resumed, we have taught them. iii. After he lost the election, he resigned.
Also, the subordinate clauses can be divided into three major groups namely:
1. Noun clause: This class of clauses has a finite verb and performs any of the functions of a
noun in a sentence. It may as well function as subject of verb, object of preposition, object and
subject complement. It may occupy in the subject, object and complement positions in sentences,
examples are:

a) Noun Clause as the subject of a verb:

i. What I do not know does not exist.

ii. That he won the election got into his head.

iii. All he had done before was recorded.

(b) Noun clause as the object of the verb:

i. He killed as we instructed him.

ii. Mr. John drove what he has instructed.

iii. Jane obeyed that the man be sacked.

(c) Noun clause as the complement of a subject:

i. What I have is that you come how.

ii. What we heard is that you have been sacked.

iii. Who we saw was the Governor of the state.

(d) Noun clause as the Complement of an object:

i. I saw the car which he just bought.

ii. I cooked the food which she liked.

iii. He caught the thieves who were sentenced.

(e) Noun clause as the complement of a preposition:

i. My school admitted the students to the faculty that just been created.
ii. John gave a cheque to the child who lost her mother.

iii. She paid the money into her account which she just opened.
2. Adverbial clause: This type of clauses is a subordinate clause that functions as an adverb,
which modifies the verb an adjective or another adverb in the main clause. It shows when,
where, to what extent, how and to what degree. Adverbial clauses have numerous forms which
are discussed with examples below:

(a) Adverbial clause of manner: It shows “how”:

i. Olu ran as if he was a train.

ii. Mr. John spoke like the new President spoke.

iii. She drove the way her husband taught her.

(b) Adverbial clause of time indicates and answers the question “when”?

i. I saw him when I opened the door.

ii. She drove off immediately the engine started.

iii. We saw them when we got home.

(c) Adverbial clause of place: This answers the question “where” in the main clause:

i. The driver discovered the money where no one could see it.

ii. I saw the girl inside the new car she brought.

iii. The Police caught him inside the car he stole.

(d) Adverbial clause of reason/purpose: This kind of clause indicates the purpose for an
action in the main clause:

i. We employed him so that we could get into her son.

ii. She came to my house in order to get the documents.

iii. I came home so that I could take enough rest.

(e) Adverbial clause of concession: This form of adverbial clause is introduced by the
subordinating conjunctions; through, although, even though, while, whereas and even if:

i. Although I am rich, I cannot give to the poor.

ii. Even if he came, I will not accommodate him.

iii. Whereas he was inside, he refused to open door.

(f) Adverbial clause of condition: This indicates the condition under which an action take
place:

i. If I see her, I will pick her up.

ii. If she is beautiful, I will marry her.

iii. If government employs graduates, he will get a job.

(g) Adverbial clause of Result: This shows the result of an action:

i. He read so hard that he came first among them.

ii. Government worked so well that won the election again.

iii. I prayed so well that I am tired to pray again.

Practice Questions
1. With adequate examples, describe a main clause.

2. Mention 2 examples of subordinate clauses.

3. Mention 3 examples of adverbial clauses of concession.

4. Mention 2 types of adverbial clauses of condition.

5. Give examples of phrases and use them in sentences.

THE SENTENCE

In English language, a sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought or

idea. It is a complete statement that can independently stand on its own without drawing its
meaning from any other source. It is a group of words which has a subject and predicate. It is
obvious from these definitions that a sentence must express the idea or thought of the speaker. It
must begin with capital letter and ends with either full stop, exclamation or question mark.
Sentence can also be a single word that expresses a complete thought or group of words. It
should be noted also that, some types of sentences may not consist of a predicate but yet they
convey a complete thought. Examples of sentences are;

i. The white man killed one elephant.

ii. No problem.
TYPES OF SENTENCE

Sentences are classified according to their function and form/structure. According to

function, there are four types i.e declaration sentence, imperative sentence, interrogative
sentence, and exclamatory sentence. While according to form/structure, there are also four types
i.e simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence and compound complex sentence.

Sentence

Functional type Structural sentence

Declarative Sentence Simple Sentence

Imperative Sentence Compound Sentence

Interrogative Sentence Complex Sentence

Exclamatory Sentence Compound-Complex Sentence

Minor/Verbless Sentence Multiple Sentence

Multiple-Complex Sentence
FUNCTIONAL TYPES OF SENTENCES

1. Declarative Sentences: This is also known as a statement which could either be an

affirmative or a denial of an argument. Declarative sentences do inform or misinform. It
is also used to express hope, wish, idea or give information. Examples are;
a. China is not as poor as they want us to believe.
b. Corrupt leaders should be publicly executed.
c. I am worried about Nigerian ladies of today.
2. Imperative Sentence: This is an expression that expresses command, entreaty, order or
instruction. A command sentence can also be a request sentence, it is often directed at the
person (s) concerned. Example are;
a. Don’t come near me!
b. Go away from this place!
c. Stop talking!
3. Interrogative Sentence: This is a sentence that ask question. It therefore takes a question
marks (?) it is used to request for information. It could be a Yes or No question, Wh-
question, Tag question, or other forms questions.
Polar or Yes/no Question: This type of question requires yes or no for an answer.
Examples of yes or no questions are;
a. Are you coming to school today?
b. Is your mother at home?
c. Can you jump over the fence?
Wh Question: This type of question usually starts with ‘wh’ element which we refer to as the
‘Q-word’ that is, ‘question word’. An answer to this type of question cannot be ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

Examples of Wh- questions are;

a. Who are you?

b. What is your name?
c. Where are you going?
Tag Questions: A tag question is a short question which adds to a statement, to elicit a
confirming response from the hearer. We use a tag question to turn a statement into a
question.

Examples of tag questions are;

a. This is my bag-isn’t it?

b. We are not going –are we?
c. He had paid the money-doesn’t he?
 Exclamatory Question: This type of question is one that shows emotional feelings- a
kind of yes or no question with the force of an exclamation. In other words, it is a
question that exclaim! It is said in a falling tune or intonation. Examples are;

a. Aren’t these ladies beautiful!(An expression of how beautiful the ladies are)
b. Isn’t this a wonderful event!( An exclamatory question under interrogative sentence)
c. Isn’t her dress gorgeous!
4. Exclamatory Sentence: This type sentence expresses a strong emotion either of joy,
sorrow surprise or wonder and it carries an exclamation mark (!)
Examples of exclamatory sentence are;
a. What a beautiful time!
b. What a mess!
c. How ruthless a leader he is!
5. Minor/Verbless Sentence: Generally, a minor sentence omits one of the structural
elements like the subject, predicator, or complement. A minor sentence is similar in
nature to a verbless sentence. A verbless sentence is a unit of grammar that is
independent; that is, it is not part of some other grammatical units, and yet does not
contain any verb. Examples are;
a. Happy birthday!
b. How cool!
c. No problem.

STRUCTURAL TYPES OF SENTENCES

1. Simple Sentence: This is a sentence that has only one main or independent clause. It
expresses only one thought. Simple sentence is not determined by how long or short it is.
Examples of simple sentence are;
a. We came here yesterday.
b. They have been doing the work since last month.
c. I have bought a pen, a ruler and a bag.
2. Compound Sentence: This is a sentence with two main or independent clauses linked with
a coordinating conjunction or separated by a comma. Examples of compound sentences
are:
a. She cooked the food and her son ate the food.
b. Sunday drives a Honda car but his friend rides a Honda motor cycle.
c. The first attends Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, the other is a student of university of
Lagos.
3. Complex Sentence: This is a sentence with one main or independent clause and one or
more dependent clauses. It should be noted here that main or independent clause should not
be more than one while dependent clause could be more than one.
 Examples of complex sentences are;
a. I ate the food because I was hungry.
b. This is the man who came to see us.
c. As I was coming to the office yesterday, I started having some funny feeling in my
head.
4. Compound Complex Sentence: This is a sentence that has two independent or main
clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Examples of compound complex sentences
are;
a. Before he was elected into the legislature, John was lean and hungry looking, but he
has now grown fat and well rounded.
b. Although president Buhari is above 75, he is quite active for his age and he is still
charming as youth.
c. Moses took to his heels and didn’t come home for three days, on learning that his
wife had been delivered of triplets.
5. Multiple Sentence: A multiple sentence is a sentence which has three or more main
or independent clauses with no dependent clause. Each of the clauses can stand on its
own as simple sentences. Examples of Multiple sentences are;
a. He came, he saw and he conquered.
b. John cleared the garage, he washed the dirty cars and later went to the gym to play
football.
c. She attended the interview, answered all the questions brilliantly yet she didn’t get the
job.
6. Multiple-Complex Sentence: This is a sentence with three main or independent
clauses plus at least one dependent clause. Examples of this type of sentence are;
a. When he slew them then, they sought him and they returned and sought earnestly for
God.
b. I came, I saw. I conquered because I was determined since no assistance was
forthcoming.
c. If the lawyers had not moved fast, the innocent man would have been ridiculed, made
to refund the money he did not steal and thrown into prison.
ESSAY WRITING

In English language, essay writing is a piece of expression which is done through the ink or in
black and white. It is a piece of writing that is put together in an orderly manner. An essay
writing is a focused piece of expression of the mind which is designed to educate, inform, or
persuade the readers.

TIPS ON GOOD ESSAY WRITING

Students who desire to write good, readable and logical essays for their teachers, for
competitions or for examination must take the following tips and guidelines into consideration;
a. Read, interpret the question very well before you start writing.

b. Define your argument or position.

c. Outline your points.

d. Rearrange your points sequentially

e. Begin the introduction with a good paragraph

TYES OF ESSAY

1. EXPOSITORY ESSAY: This is a type of essay where the writer tries to explain how
something works or how something is done or how something is made or manufactured.
Expository essay gives complete statement on the subject matter. It provides a clear, highly
focused explanation on a given topic. It exposes you to the world through your ability to
organize and convey information to the readers. A full explanation of a process or idea is done
through an expository essay.

Tips on Expository Essay

1. The content of expository must be relevant to the topic

2. The processes must be arranged in logical order

3. The content must be exciting and must interest the readers

4. Clarity of purpose is necessary in Expository essay

5. Full explanation of the processes must be clear and ambiguous

6. The language must be simple, and straight forward.

7. You should use register words related to the topic

8. You must read through your work before you submit it.

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY: This is type of essay presents two sides on of an argument which
students are expected to choose a side or position with reasonable points. Argumentative essay
requires the students to take a stance on a topic. An argument essay provides an opportunity to
take a stance on a topic. An argument essay provides an opportunity for the student to persuade
or convince the readers. It shows your position on a topic:

Tips on Argumentative Essay

a. Read the question very well

b. Choose a side (for or against)

c. Choose or pick points that will convince the listeners

d. Present logically your points to convince the opponents

e. You must present your evidence and arguments

f. You must not deviate from your chosen position

g. Choose appropriate vocabulary and register words to convince your opponents

h. You may use appropriate idioms

i. The conclusion must emphasize your consistent position on the argument.

j. You must read through your work before you submit it.

NARRATIVE ESSAY: This type of essay writing tells a story a story of what has happened to
you before or imaged to have happened to you. You will be asked to narrate an event or
imaginative exploration of what could have happened to you. You must create an interesting and
captivating credibility in the mind of the readers to capture their minds.

Tips on Narrative Essay

a. You must be imaginative in your write up

b. You must get enough points to start the essay

c. You need to present your points logically

d. Chronological presentation of events is required

e. Your story must be credible and interesting

f. Time sequence is a good fact in narrative essay

g. You must need a lot of adjectives to describes a number of events one after the order

h. A vivid description of what happened is required

i. You must be consistent with the use of tense

j. Read through your work before you submit it

DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY: This type of essay writing requires a detail description of something,
places and persons, or scene of an accident. It requires you to describe vividly. This tests your
ability to use
words creatively to create mental picture of what you are describing to the readers. You need to
take cognizance of the persons involved, the scene, place and time.

Tips on Descriptive Essay

a. You must know your audience

b. Itemize your points down

c. The purpose of writing the essay should be known

d. You can begin by introducing the object, or person

e. Use imaginative words to create true picture in the mind of the readers

f. Your descriptive ability must not be dull

g. Your views must start from general to specific aspects

h. Express your ideas and thoughts in paragraphs

i. You must read through your work for necessary grammatical errors

j. Make necessary corrections before you submit it.

Quiz 1. Describe a local festival you recently witnessed in your village

CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION

If you want to discuss the meaning of a word, it helps to know the difference
between denotation and connotation. These two terms are easy to confuse because they describe
related concepts. Additionally, both denotation and connotation stem from the Latin
word notāre, meaning “to note.”

The denotation of a word or phrase is its explicit or direct meaning. Another way to think of it is
as the associations that a word usually elicits for most speakers of a language, as distinguished
from those elicited for any individual speaker because of personal experience.

The connotation of a word or phrase is the associated or secondary meaning; it can be something
suggested or implied by a word or thing, rather than being explicitly named or described.
For example, the words home and house have similar denotations or primary meanings:
a home is “a shelter that is the usual residence of a person, family, or household,” and a house is
“a building in which people live.” However, for many, these terms carry different associations or
secondary meanings, also known as connotations. Many people would agree that home connotes
a sense of belonging and comfort, whereas house conveys little more than a structure.

The connotation of a word depends on cultural context and personal associations, but
the denotation of a word is its standardized meaning within the English language. One way to
remember the difference between the terms is to take a hint from the prefixes: con- comes from
Latin and means “together; with,” reminding us that the connotation of a word works with or
alongside its more explicit meaning or denotation.

Denotation and Connotation

A word’s denotation is its dictionary definition. A word can also make people feel
or think in a certain way. These feelings and ideas are the connotations of a word.
Words with the same meaning can have different “shades of meaning”—that is,
they can be understood differently.
Positive connotation: Being on the track team has made Alan slender and
lean. (attractively thin)
Neutral connotation: Being on the track team has made Alan thin.
Negative connotation: Being on the track team has made Alan skinny and
scrawny. (unattractively thin)
Be sure that the words you use have the right connotation as well as the right
denotation.
Positive connotation:
Ms. Baxter has been a(n) (valuable, costly) employee of this company for
three years. In that time, she has expressed many (militant, strong) opinions.
Her methods of solving problems are sometimes (unusual, bizarre). In short,
she is a real (leader, show-off).
Negative connotation:
I was surprised to get a birthday gift from my Aunt Joanna. She is (an
inquisitive person, a real snoop), so she had asked many of my relatives
what I might like. I tore the (colorful, gaudy) paper off the package and found
a shirt made of (flimsy, delicate) material. It was covered with (detailed,
fussy) embroidery and (flashy, eye-catching) sequins. It certainly was a(n)
(strange, exotic) present.

Comprehension
How To Answer Comprehension Questions Correctly
Are you scared of comprehension passages in English because the questions always give you
tough time to answer?

1. Read the passage ONCE with your open mind. A short time is always given for English exam
which gives you barely a minute to answer each question. Do NOT waste your time by reading
the passage twice or thrice. Without distraction, once is enough and then go straight to the
comprehension questions.

2. Read each question carefully. As you read through the questions, there will be words in each
question that you’d remember seeing in the comprehension passage. That’s how smart your brain
works. It may not remember the entire comprehension passage but when it sees a familiar word,
you will get an alert.

3. Go back to the passage. Once you spot a familiar word in the question, go back to the passage
immediately and look for where that word is. Do NOT read the entire comprehension passage
again. Just skim through it fast with your eyes and stop once you see the familiar word that you
came for.

4. Check the options. After seeing where the familiar word is in the passage, go back to the
question and check the options. This will prepare your smart brain for the last step. You may
even know the answer to the question already from this step. But whether you do or not, it is best
to be sure.

5. Confirm your answer. After going through the options, go back again to the comprehension
passage, where that familiar word is and get your answer. But how? Read the sentence(s) around
that familiar word or the paragraph, if you may. The answer to any question on comprehension
is always within the paragraph in the passage that contains that familiar word.

6. Write out your answers in simple and correct English expressions.

7. When you are asked to replace a word with another as used in the passage, kindly replace such
word with the appropriate word class.
 Class exercise

Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow.

Health and peace of mind are among life’s greatest treasures. Whatever our age or means, most
of us may enjoy a fuller degree of physical health and none may not lack mental peace. People
are afflicted with all kinds of ailments, among which cancer, diabetes, and diseases of the heart
and blood vessels rank high. Increasing demand is made on the hospital services. Disease is the
absence of health. Thus, the physician combats disease, not so much by concentrating on the
disease itself, as by seeking to restore health. It is recognized that the right approach to the
problem of curing or avoiding disease is to concentrate on restoring or maintaining positive
health. But how can we build up our health? Proper nutrition comes first. The greatest single
factor in promoting and maintaining health is proper nutrition. Without it, disease is sure to
appear. Right food forms the foundation for health. Poor food means poor nutrition; poor
nutrition leads to poor physical structure, and poor structure spells ill health and disease. There
are many other factors to be considered of course. These include exercise, fresh air, proper
clothing, personal hygiene, and mental peace. But food is the greatest single factor.

From: H E Nix etal. Radiant Health: Lincoinshire, England: Stanborough Press Ltd., p.13

Questions:

a, According to the passage, at what age do we enjoy high degree of physical health?

b, According to the passage, what types of diseases smite human beings ?

c, What according to the passage can man do to avoid health challenges ?

d, Give a word or phrase to replace the following words as used in the passage;

i peace, ii afflicted, iii combats

Idiomatic Expressions Their meanings

1. Beggars can’t be choosers People who are in great need must accept any

helps.

2. To beat about the bush Not to do something in a straightforward way.

3. Behind bars Someone to be in prison

4. To jump from frying pan into To face a worse problem after the first one.
 fire

5. Below the belt To say something that is cruel or unfair

6. Belly up If thing go badly wrong.

7. To gain ground To make progress in one’s activities

8. Beside the point It is not relevant to the point of discussion

9. Above all Before anything else

10. To throws in the towel to accept defeat and end the contest

11. Beside yourself When you are extremely angry

12. In black and white When something is written on paper

13. Above board Honest and straightforward

14. To give up the ghost To die

15. To keep a person at arms To avoid contact with the person

length

16. To pull the wire To use influence to achieve something

17. Bedroom eyes To have a sexy look in the eyes

18. Beck and call To do everything for you always

19. Beauty is only skin deep Appearance can be deceptive

20. To be caught red-handed To be caught in the criminal act

21. A skeleton in one’s cupboard An evil secret or hidden evil act

22. Under one’s nose Under one’s close observation

23. To see red To be mad with anger

24. Rough and tumble In a very disorderly manner

25. To pack bag and baggage To move with al one’s belongings

 26. At a loose end Not to know what to do at a spare time

27. As cool as a cucumber For someone not to get worried by anything

28. A man of straw A poor man

29. Red flag A sign of danger

30. A snake in the green grass A hidden enemy

31. To be in hot water To be in trouble

32. To rob Peter to pay Paul To satisfy one person at the expense of the other

33. As a rule To follow the laydown rules

34. As cold as stone When people are unemotional

35. A white Elephant A costly property that is difficult to maintain

36. Walls have ears People will hear what we discuss about them

37. To be in hot water To be in trouble

38. To give the green light To permit to go ahead

39. Armchair critic Someone who offers advice on what he cannot do

any better.

40. An old flame An old relationship but with effection still on

41. Bean counter An Accountant

42. Bear the brunt Someone who endures worst time

Quiz

1. Write an essay on this topic: Insecurity hinders economic growth and national
development in Nigeria.

2. Write your argument either for or against the notion: Boko Haram members should
be granted amnesty or not.
 3. Write an article, for publication on, insecurity in Nigeria: the ways out.
4. Write on the topic, social vices among Nigerians: the internet experience.

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