Chapter 5

Electrical circuit components

1- Resistance
 Electrical circuit components

2- Inductance

Fixed inductance
 Electrical circuit components

2- Inductance

Variometer

Variable inductance
 Electrical circuit components

3- Capacitance

Fixed capacitance
 Electrical circuit components

3- Capacitance

Variable capacitance
 Electrical circuit components

If we have an unknown resistance or inductance or

capacitance, how can we accurately measure it???

The unknown resistance or inductance or capacitance

sometimes represent a practical element such as:
• Determination of short circuit location in telephone lines or
power cables.
• Determination of transformer winding inductance,
capacitance and resistance.
• etc.
DC andAC Bridge can be considered the best choice.
 DC Bridges

1. DC bridges are the most accurate method for measuring resistances.

2. AC bridges are most popular, convenient and accurate instruments

for measurement of unknown inductance, capacitance and some other
related quantities.
 DC Bridges
Wheatstone bridge.
 DC Bridges
Wheatstone bridge.
 DC Bridges
Wheatstone bridge.
 DC Bridges
Wheatstone bridge.
DC Bridges
 Introduction to AC Bridges
Alternating current bridges are most popular, convenient and accurate
instruments for measurement of unknown inductance, capacitance and
some other related quantities.

In its simplest form, ac bridges can be thought of to be derived from the

conventional dc Wheatstone bridge.
 Introduction to AC Bridges
An ac bridge, in its basic form, consists of four arms, an alternating
power supply, and a balance detector.

Balance is indicated by zero response of

the detector. At balance, no current
flows through the detector, i.e., there is
no potential difference across the
detector, or in other words, the
potentials at points B and C are the
same.
 Introduction to AC Bridges
An ac bridge, in its basic form, consists of four arms, an alternating
power supply, and a balance detector.
 Introduction to AC Bridges
An ac bridge, in its basic form, consists of four arms, an alternating
power supply, and a balance detector.

All AC bridges must have two variables to

guarantee magnitude and phase balance
 Introduction to AC Bridges
Example
Introduction to AC Bridges
Introduction to AC Bridges
Introduction to AC Bridges
Introduction to AC Bridges
 Introduction to AC Bridges

Measurement of inductance
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
Hay’s Bridge
Anderson’s Bridge
Owen’s Bridge

Measurement of capacitance
De Sauty’s Bridge
Schering Bridge
Wien’s Bridge
 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
This bridge is used to measure the value of an unknown inductance by
comparing it with a variable standard self-inductance.
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
Simple analysis method
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
Simple analysis method
 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
Detailed analysis method
This bridge is used to measure the value of an unknown inductance by
comparing it with a variable standard self-inductance.
 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Bridge description

The unknown inductor L1 of resistance R1 in the branch AB is compared

with the standard known inductor L2 of resistance R2 on arm AC.

Branch BD and CD contain known non-inductive resistors R3 and R4

respectively.
 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Balance requirement

The bridge is balanced by varying L2 and one of the resistors R3 or R4.

Alternatively, varying R3 (for magnitude balance) and R2 (for phase
balance).
 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Under balance condition

Under balance condition, currents in the arms AB and BD are equal

(I1). Similarly, currents in the arms AC and CD are equal (I2).

Under balanced condition, since nodes B and D are at the same

potential, voltage drops across arm BD and CD are equal (V3 = V4);
similarly, voltage drop across arms AB and AC are equal (V1 = V2).
 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Under balance condition

As shown in the phasor diagram, V3 and V4 being equal, they are

overlapping. Arms BD and CD being purely resistive, currents through
these arms will be in the same phase and in phase with the voltage drops
across these two respective branches. Thus, currents I1 and I2 will be
collinear with the phasors V3 and V4.
 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Under balance condition

The same current I1 flows through branch AB as well, thus the voltage drop
I1R1 remains in the same phase as I1. Voltage drop wL1I1 in the inductor L1 will
be 90° out of phase (Leading) with I1R1. Phasor summation of these two
voltage drops I1R1 and wL1I1 will give the voltage drop V1 across the arm AB.

The voltage across the two branches AB and AC are equal, thus the two voltage
drops V1 and V2 are equal and are in the same phase. Finally, phasor summation
of V1 and V3 (or V2 and V4) results in the supply voltage V
 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Under balance condition

V1 = V2 V1 V2
V3 = V4 =
V3 V4
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s-Wien Bridge
In this bridge, the unknown inductance is measured by comparison with a
standard variable capacitance. It is much easier to obtain standard values of
variable capacitors with acceptable degree of accuracy. This is however, not the
case with finding accurate and stable standard value variable inductor as is
required in the basic Maxwell’s bridge
Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s-Wien Bridge
Simple analysis method
Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s-Wien Bridge
Simple analysis method
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge
Detailed analysis method

Basic Maxwell’s bridge Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

Bridge description

The unknown inductor L1 of effective resistance R1 in the branch AB is

compared with the standard known variable capacitor C4 on arm CD. The
other resistances R2, R3, and R4 are known as non– inductive resistors.
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

Balance requirement

The bridge is preferably balanced by varying C4 and R4, giving

independent adjustment settings.
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

Under balance condition

Under balanced condition, no current flows through the detector. Under

such condition, currents in the arms AB and BD are equal (I1). Similarly,
currents in the arms AC and CD are equal (I2).
Under balanced condition, since nodes B and D are at the same potential,
voltage drops across arm BD and CD are equal (V3 = V4); similarly,
voltage drops across arms AB and AC are equal (V1 = V2).
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

Under balance condition

As shown in the phasor diagram of, V3 and V4 being equal, they are
overlapping both in magnitude and phase. The arm BD being purely resistive,
current I1through this arm will be in the same phase with the voltage drop V3
across it. Similarly, the voltage drop V4 across the arm CD, current IR through
the resistance R4 in the same branch, and the resulting resistive voltage drop
IRR4 are all in the same phase
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

Under balance condition

The resistive current IR when added with the quadrature capacitive current IC,
results in the main current I2 flowing in the arm CD. This current I2 while
flowing through the resistance R2 in the arm AC, produces a voltage drop V2 =
I2R2, that is in same phase as I2. Under balanced condition, voltage drops across
arms AB and AC are equal, i.e., V1 = V2. This voltage drop across the arm AB
is actually the phasor summation of voltage drop I1R1 across the resistance R1
and the quadrature voltage drop wL1I1 across the unknown inductor L1. Finally,
phasor summation of V1 and V3 (or V2 and V4) results in the supply voltage V.
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

Under balance condition

The resistive current IR when added with the quadrature capacitive current IC,
results in the main current I2 flowing in the arm CD. This current I2 while
flowing through the resistance R2 in the arm AC, produces a voltage drop V2 =
I2R2, that is in same phase as I2. Under balanced condition, voltage drops across
arms AB and AC are equal, i.e., V1 = V2. This voltage drop across the arm AB
is actually the phasor summation of voltage drop I1R1 across the resistance R1
and the quadrature voltage drop wL1I1 across the unknown inductor L1. Finally,
phasor summation of V1 and V3 (or V2 and V4) results in the supply voltage V.
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

Under balance condition

The resistive current IR when added with the quadrature capacitive current IC,
results in the main current I2 flowing in the arm CD. This current I2 while
flowing through the resistance R2 in the arm AC, produces a voltage drop V2 =
I2R2, that is in same phase as I2. Under balanced condition, voltage drops across
arms AB and AC are equal, i.e., V1 = V2. This voltage drop across the arm AB
is actually the phasor summation of voltage drop I1R1 across the resistance R1
and the quadrature voltage drop wL1I1 across the unknown inductor L1. Finally,
phasor summation of V1 and V3 (or V2 and V4) results in the supply voltage V.
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

Under balance condition

Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

Advantages of Maxwell’s Bridge

1. The balance equations are independent of each other, thus the two variables
C4 and R4 can be varied independently.
2. Final balance equations are independent of frequency.
3. The unknown quantities can be denoted by simple expressions involving
known quantities.
4. Balance equation is independent of losses associated with the inductor.
5. A wide range of inductance at power and audio frequencies can be
measured.
 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Wien Bridge

Disadvantages of Maxwell’s Bridge

1. The bridge, for its operation, requires a standard variable capacitor, which
can be very expensive if high accuracies are asked. In such a case, fixed
value capacitors are used and balance is achieved by varying R4 and R2.
2. This bridge is limited to measurement of low Q inductors (1< Q < 10).
3. Maxwell’s bridge is also unsuited for coils with very low value of Q (e.g.,
Q < 1). Such low Q inductors can be found in inductive resistors and RF
coils. Maxwell’s bridge finds difficult and laborious to obtain balance while
measuring such low Q inductors.
 Anderson’s Bridge
Simple analysis method

B
C B

D
B
E
E E
A A
A
 C
Anderson’s BBridge B

D
B
E
E E
A A
A
Maxwell’s Wien
Bridge

Anderson’s
Bridge
Anderson’s Bridge
(1)
 Anderson’s Bridge
Detailed analysis method
This method is a modification of Maxwell’s inductance–capacitance bridge, in
which value of the unknown inductor is expressed in terms of a standard known
capacitor. This method is applicable for precise measurement of inductances
over a wide range of values.

Bridge description
 Anderson’s Bridge

Balance requirement

The unknown inductor L1 of effective resistance R1 in the branch AB is

compared with the standard known capacitor C on arm ED. The bridge is
balanced by varying r.
 Anderson’s Bridge

Under balance condition

Under balanced condition, since no current flows through the detector, nodes B
and E are at the same potential.
 Anderson’s Bridge

Under balance condition

As shown in the phasor diagram, I1 and V3 = I1R3 are in the same phase along
the horizontal axis. Since under balance condition, voltage drops across arms
BD and ED are equal, V3 = I1R3 = IC/wC and all the three phasors are in the
same phase.
 Anderson’s Bridge

Under balance condition

The same current I1, when flowing through the arm AB produces a voltage drop
I1(R1 + r1) which is once again, in phase with I1. Since under balanced
condition, no current flows through the detector, the same current IC flows
through the resistance r in arm CE and then through the capacitor C in the arm
ED.
 Anderson’s Bridge

Under balance condition

Phasor summation of the voltage drops ICr in arm the CE and IC /wC in the arm
ED will be equal to the voltage drop V4 across the arm CD. V4 being the
voltage drop in the resistance R4 on the arm CD, the current I4 and V4 will be in
the same phase.
 Anderson’s Bridge

Under balance condition

As can be seen from the Anderson’s bridge circuit, and also plotted in the
phasor diagram, phasor summation of the currents I4 in the arm CD and the
current IC in the arm CE will give rise to the current I2 in the arm AC. This
current I2, while passing through the resistance R2 will give rise to a voltage
drop V2 = I2R2 across the arm AC that is in phase with the current I2.
 Anderson’s Bridge

Under balance condition

Since, under balance, potentials at nodes B and E are the same, voltage drops
between nodes A -B and between A -C -E will be equal.
Thus, phasor summation of the voltage drop V2 = I2R2 in the arm AC and ICr in
arm the CE will build up to the voltage V1 across the arm AB. The voltage V1
can also be obtained by adding the resistive voltage drop I1(R1 + r1) with the
quadrature inductive voltage drop wL1I1 in the arm AB.
 Anderson’s Bridge

Under balance condition

At balance, VBD = VED

 Anderson’s Bridge

Under balance condition

 Anderson’s Bridge

Under balance condition

 Anderson’s Bridge

Advantages and dis advantages

The advantage of Anderson’s bridge over Maxwell’s bride is that in this case a
fixed value capacitor is used thereby greatly reducing the cost. This however, is
at the expense of connection complexities and balance equations becoming
tedious.
 Hay’s Bridge

Hay’s bridge is a modification of Maxwell’s bridge. This method of

measurement is particularly suited for high Q inductors (L>>>R)
 Hay’s Bridge
Simple analysis method
 Hay’s Bridge
Simple analysis method
 Hay’s Bridge
Detailed analysis method
Hay’s bridge is a modification of Maxwell’s bridge. This method of
measurement is particularly suited for high Q inductors (L>>>R)

Bridge description
 Hay’s Bridge

Balance requirement

The unknown inductor L1 of effective resistance R1 in the branch AB is

compared with the standard known variable capacitor C4 on arm CD. This
bridge uses a resistance R4 in series with the standard capacitor C4 (unlike in
Maxwell’s bride where R4 was in parallel with C4). The other resistances R2 and
R3 are known no-inductive resistors.
The bridge is balanced by varying C4 and R4 or varying R4 and R2
 Hay’s Bridge

Under balance condition

Under balanced condition, since no current flows through the detector, nodes B
and D are at the same potential, voltage drops across arm BD and CD are equal
(V3 = V4); similarly, voltage drops across arms AB and AC are equal (V1 = V2).
 Hay’s Bridge

Under balance condition

As shown in the phasor diagram, V3 and V4 being equal, they are overlapping
both in magnitude and phase and are draw on along the horizontal axis. The
arm BD being purely resistive, current I1 through this arm will be in the same
phase with the voltage drop V3 = I1R3 across it. The same current I1, while
passing through the resistance R1 in the arm AB, produces a voltage drop I1R1
that is once again, in the same phase as I1. Total voltage drop V1 across the arm
AB is obtained by adding the two quadrature phasors I1R1 and wL1I1
representing resistive and inductive voltage drops in the same branch AB.
 Hay’s Bridge

Under balance condition

Since under balance condition, voltage drops across arms AB and AC are equal,
i.e., (V1 = V2), the two voltages V1 and V2 are overlapping both in magnitude
and phase. The branch AC being purely resistive, the branch current I2 and
branch voltage V2 will be in the same phase.
voltage V.
 Hay’s Bridge

Under balance condition

The same current I2 flows through the arm CD and produces a voltage drop I2R4
across the resistance R4. This resistive voltage drop I2R4, obviously is in the
same phase as I2. The capacitive voltage drop I2/wC4 in the capacitance C4
present in the same arm AC will however, lag the current I2 by 90°. Phasor
summation of these two series voltage drops across R4 and C4 will give the total
voltage drop V4 across the arm CD. Finally, phasor summation of V1 and V3 (or
V2 and V4) results in the supply voltage V.
 Hay’s Bridge

Under balance condition

 Hay’s Bridge

Under balance condition

The bridge is frequency dependent

Hay’s Bridge
Hay’s Bridge
Owen’s Bridge
 Owen’s Bridge
Simple analysis method
 Owen’s Bridge
Detailed analysis method
This bridge is used for measurement of unknown inductance in terms of known
value capacitance. This bridge has the advantages of being useful over a
very wide range of inductances with capacitors of reasonable dimension.

Bridge description
 Owen’s Bridge

Balance requirement
The unknown inductor L1 of effective resistance R1 in the branch AB is
compared with the standard known capacitor C2 on arm AC. The bridge is
balanced by varying R2 and C2 independently
 Owen’s Bridge

Under balance condition

Prove and verify with the aid of phasor diagram

Owen’s Bridge
Owen’s Bridge